Terminology until now

Vocabulary review: August 30, 2018
Scientific method includes:

• Making an observation
• Asking a question
• Forming a hypothesis
• Conducting an experiment,
• ​Getting results that can be measured
• Accept or reject hypothesis

Hypothesis: the starting point of your investigation, a proposed explanation based on limited evidence

Question: what you are exploring, it is not in the book, but it literally means question

Experiment: a way to explore your question and test your hypothesis

Experimental group: the people or beings of subjects that you are studying, the group that experiences the experimental intervention

Control group: a group that does not experience the experimental intervention

Placebo: fake treatment

Placebo effect: effect that we see when members of a control group display a measurable response to a placebo

Independent variable: factor being deliberately changed in the experiment

Dependent variable: measured result of an experiment, seen in both the experimental group and the control group

Sample size: number or subjects in the experiment

Result: measurable by units, what you learned

Evidence based conclusion: your result and seeing how it relates to your hypothesis

Scientific theory: a hypothesis that is supported by many years of rigorous testing and thousands of experiments
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Five functional traits of life:

Growth: And increase in the organism's size as the number of cell making up the organism increases.

Reproduction: the process of producing new organisms, offspring are similar but not necessarily identical to their parents in general structure, function, and properties.

Homeostasis: organisms maintain a stable internal environment, even when the external environment changes.

Sense and respond to stimuli: organisms respond to stimuli in many ways, they may move toward a food source r away from a threatening predator.

Obtain and use energy: all living beings require an input of energy to power their activities.  organisms obtain energy from food (which they either produce themselves or consume from the environment).  Chemical reactions convert that energy into usable forms. The sum total of all these reactions is metabolism.

Review of chemistry, important terms:

• Element: a substance whose atoms all have the same number of protons, same atomic number
• Matter: anything with mass, physical substance
• Atom: basic unit of a chemical element
• Proton: subatomic particle with positive electric charge, equal in size to an electron but of opposite charge
• Electron: subatomic particle with a charge of negative electricity, found in all atoms, primary carrier of electricity
• Neutron: subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric charge, present in all except those of ordinary hydrogen
• Monomer: a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer
• Polymer: a substance that has a molecular structure consisting chiefly or entirely of a large number of similar units bonded together
• Nucleus: positively charged central core of an atom, has protons and neutrons
• Organic molecule: composed of carbon atoms in rings or long chains to which are attached other atoms such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
• Inorganic molecule: composed of other elements, not a combination of hydrogen and carbon
• Carbohydrate: large group of organic compounds, include sugar, starch, and cellulose
• Monosaccharide: any of the class of sugars that cannot by hydrolyzed to give a simpler sugar
• Protein: built from building blocks called amino acids
• Lipid: organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives and are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, oils and waxes
• Nucleotide: a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group, nucleotides form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA
• Nucleic acids: a complex organic substance present in living cells, expecially DNA or RNA, whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain
• Macromolecules: a molecule containing a very large number of atoms, such as a protein, or synthetic polymer

Types of bonds:

• Ionic bond: the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a type of chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to become a positively charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts those electrons to become a negatively charged anion. Ionic bonds require an electron donor, often a metal, and an electron acceptor, a nonmetal.
• Covalent bond: the sharing of electrons between atoms. This type of bonding occurs between two atoms of the same element or of elements close to each other in the periodic table. This bonding occurs primarily between nonmetals; however, it can also be observed between nonmetals and metals.
• Hydrogen bond: a weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other.​
• Phospholipids: a lipid with a phosphate group in its molecule
• Hydrophobic: does not like water
• Hydrophilic: likes water

Dissolving:

• Solvent: able to dissolve other substances
• Solute: component in a solution, what is dissolved in the solvent
• Solution: a mixture, with a solute in a solvent

Water terms:

• Polar molecule: must contain polar bonds due to a difference in electronegativity between the bonded atoms
• pH:  is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration; a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution
• Acid: Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic
• Base: pH greater than 7 are basic
• Hydrogen bonds in water: Polar molecules, such as water molecules, have a weak, partial negative charge at one region of the molecule (the oxygen atom in water) and a partial positive charge elsewhere (the hydrogen atoms in water).
• Adhesion: is the tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another
• Cohesion: cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another, water is attracted to water

Types of cells:

• Prokaryotic cells: cells that lack internal membrane bound organelles 
• Eukaryotic cells: contains that contain membrane bound organelles

​Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall, eukaryotic cells do not

WHAT IS IN THE CELL? ORGANELLES

• Organelle: little organ, the membrane bound compartments of eukaryotic cells that carry out specific functions.
• Cell membrane: a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that forms the boundary of all cells
• Cytoplasm: the gelatinous, interior of all cells
• Ribosome: a complex of RNA and protein that carries out protein synthesis in cells
• Nucleus: the organelle in eukaryotic cells that contains the genetic material
• Nuclear envelope: surrounds the nucleus, The nuclear envelope consists of two lipid bilayer membranes, an inner nuclear membrane, and an outer nuclear membrane
• Mitochondria: Membrane-bound organelle responsible for important energy conversion reactions in eukaryotes
• Endoplasmic reticulum: a membrane enclosed series of passages in eukaryotic cells in which proteins and lipids are synthesized
• Golgi apparatus: and organelle made up of stacked membrane-enclosed discs that packages proteins and prepares them for transport
• Lysosome: an organelle in eukaryotic cells filled with enzymes that can degrade worn out cellular structures
• Cytoskeleton: network of protein fibers that provides structure and facilitates movement, microfilament, intermediate filaments, microtubules
• Chloroplasts are in plants: an organelle in plant and algal cells that is the site f photosynthesis

WAYS OF CELL COMMUNICATION:

• Osmosis: diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to and area of higher solute concentration
• Simple diffusion: the movement of small, hydrophobic molecules across a membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, does not require energy 
• Transport proteins: proteins involved in the movement of molecules across the cell membrane.
• Facilitated diffusion: the process by which large or hydrophilic solutes move across a membrane from and area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration with the help of transport proteins
• Active transport: the energy requiring process by which solutes are pumped from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration with the help of transport proteins. 

Endosymbiosis: the theory that free-living prokaryotic cells engulfed (ate) other free-living prokaryotic cells billions of years ago, forming eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts

BACTERIA

• Peptidoglycan: a macromolecule that forms all bacterial cell walls and provides rigidity to the cell wall
  
• Gram-positive: refers to bacteria with a cell wall that includes a thick layer of peptidoglycan that retains the Gram stain
  
• Gram negative: refers to bacteria with a cell wall that includes a thin layer of peptidoglycan surrounded by an outer lipid membrane that does not retain the Gram stain.

DNA: DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

DNA: is the molecule of heredity, common to all life forms, that is passed from parents to offspring.

• DNA exists in the nuclei of most cells
• DNA molecules are organized into structures called chromosomes
• Chromosomes consist of a single long DNA molecule wrapped around proteins
• If a single DNA molecule were stretched out it would be 1 to 3 meters long

Chromosome: is a single, large DNA molecule that is wrapped around proteins; chromosomes are located in the nuclei of most eukaryotic cells

Nucleotides: the building blocks of DNA

• Each has a sugar, a phosphate, and a base, one of four bases
• Bases: A, C, G, and T
  • adenine (A)
  • thymine (T)
  • guanine (G)
  • cytosine (C)
• The sequence is unique in each person  

Double helix: the spiral structure formed by two strands of DNA nucleotides bound together

Hydrogen bonds: or base pairing hold the strands together

Polymer: made up of building block molecules

• Biopolymers made of monomers

Genetic Code: the nucleotide triplets of DNA and RNA molecules that carry genetic information in living cells.

DNA Profile: a visual representation of a person's unique DNA sequence

​DNA polymerase: an enzyme that “reads” the sequence of a DNA strand and helps to add complementary nucleotides to form a new strand during DNA replication

DNA Replication: the natural process by which cells make an identical copy of a DNA molecule

Coding regions: sequences of DNA that serve as instructions for making proteins

Noncoding Regions: DNA sequences that do not hold instructions to make proteins

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): a laboratory technique used to replicate and thus amplify a specific DNA segment ​

Gel electrophoresis: a laboratory technique that separates fragments of DNA by size

Genome: one complete set of genetic instructions encoded in the DNA of an organism.

MIT​OSIS IS: A PROCESS OF CELL DIVISION: a type of cell division that results in two cells, each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.

Gene:  A sequence of DNA that contains the information to make at least one protein

Gene Expression: The process of using DNA instructions to make proteins.

Genotype: Genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype: the physical qualities of an organism including observable or not observable traits

Alleles: alternative versions of the same gene that have different nucleotide sequences.  

MITOSIS

Interphase:

• Each chromosome replicates in interphase
• Resulting in two sister chromatids connected at the centromere.
• Chromosomes are loosely gathered in the nucleus

Prophase:

• Replicated chromosomes begin to coil up
• The nuclear membrane begins to disassemble
• Protein fibers of the mitotic spindle begin to form

Prometaphase:

• chromosomes condense (shorten) so they are easier to separate
• spindle fibers attach to chromosomes on both sides at the centromere region

Metaphase:

• ​spindle fibers from opposite ends of the cell pull on chromosomes
• chromosomes are aligned along the middle of the cell

Anaphase:

• spindle fiber shorten and pull sister chromatids to opposite ends of the cell

Telophase:

• an identical set of chromosomes reaches each pole
• spindle fiber dissemble
• nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes forming the daughter cell nuclei

Interphase:

• two identical daughter cells are formed, each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell

CELL DIVISION VOCABULARY​

Transcription: The first stage of gene expression, during which cells produce molecules of messenger mRNA from the instruction encoded within the genes

Translation: The second stage of gene expression reads mRNA sequences and assembles the corresponding amino acids to make a protein

Messenger mRNA: the RNA copy on an original DNA sequence made during transcription

RNA Polymerase: the enzyme that accomplishes transcription.  RNA polymerase copies a strand of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA

Ribosome: the cellular machinery that assembles proteins during the process of translation

Codon: a sequence of three mRNA nucleotides that specifies a particular amino acid

Anticodon: The part of tRNA molecule that binds to complementary mRNA codon

Transfer RNA (tRNA): A type of RNA that helps ribosomes assemble chains of amino acids during translation

Genetic Code: The particular amino acids specified by particular mRNA codon

EVERY GENE HAS TWO PARTS

Regulatory Sequence: the part of a gene that determines the timing, amount, and location of protein produced.

Coding Sequence: The part of the gene that specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein,  Coding sequences determine the identity, shape, and function of proteins.

Cell Division: the process by which a cell reproduces itself; it is normal and essential for growth and healing of tissues

Mitosis: the segregation and separation of duplicated chromosomes during cell division

Sister Chromatid: one or more identical DNA molecules that make up a duplicated chromosome following DNA replication

Centromere: the specialized region of a chromosome where the sister chromatids are joined

​Cytokiness: the physical division of a cell into two daughter cells

MEIOSIS

Meiosis: A specialized type of cell division that generates unique haploid gametes. Generates sex cells.

Gamete: specialized reproductive cells that carry one copy of each chromosome, sperm are male gametes, egg are female gametes

Haploid: having only one copy of every chromosome

Cancer: unregulated cell division; cells divide inappropriately and accumulate, in some instances forming a tumor

Chemotherapy: the treatment of cancer by the use of chemicals

Food Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work, cellular work includes building complex molecules and moving substances in and out of the cell.

Chemical Energy: potential energy stored in the bonds of biological molecules (Food)

Potential Energy: stored energy (Food)

Kinetic Energy: the energy of motion or movement, (muscle movement, digestion breaks down food and releases energy)

Heat: the kinetic energy generated by random movements of molecules or atoms (transfer of energy from food to muscle to environment

Autotroph: plants are autotrophs, they capture energy from the sunlight through photosynthesis

• don't need to eat other beings
• plants, algae, some bacteria

Heterotroph: consumes to stay alive

Photosynthesis: the process by which plants and other autotrophs use the energy of sunlight to make energy rich molecules using carbon dioxide and water

Chemical formula for photosynthesis looks like:

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2

Plants take sunlight and make sugars, glucose sugar, chemical energy.

The glucose sugar goes to:

• usable energy: chemical energy to power cellular functions
• Stored energy: potential energy stored in oil
• cell structures: building blocks for new cells

Chloroplast: the organelle in the plant cell where photosynthesis occurs

Sunlight has Photons: packets of light energy, each with a specific wavelength and quantity of energy

A photon is both a wave and a particle, a packet of light that is in motion

Light Energy: the energy of the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation

Chlorophyll: The pigment present in the green parts of plants that absorbs photos of light energy during photosynthesis

ATP, Adenosinetriphosphate: The molecules that cells use to power energy-requiring functions

Carbon Fixation: the conversion of inorganic carbon CO2 into organic forms, sugars

Photosynthesis:

• Pigments help absorb colors of light with certain wavelenghts.
• the color of the pigment comes from the pigment of the wavelength of the light reflected
• Plants appear green because they reflect yellow and green light
• Red and blue wavelenghts of light are absorbed by the pigments and provide the energy that is used for photosynthesis
• This happens in chloroplasts
  • light dependent reactions
  • The Calvin Cycle
  • in the chloroplasts are thylakoids
  • they are surrounded by a fluid filled space called stroma
  • the reactions that synthesize glucose occur in the stroma

​Thylakoid: where light dependent reactions happen, Calvin Cycle,

Calvin cycle: is the set of chemical reactions that take place in chloroplasts during photosynthesis. The cycle is light-independent because it takes place after the energy has been captured from sunlight

Plant products:  glucose, fatty acid, glycerol

Algae: photosynthetic protist

Protist: is any eukaryotic organism (one with cells containing a nucleus) that is not an animal, plant or fungus

Biofuel: a fuel derived directly from living matter. Algae produce biofuel

Diatom: phytoplankton, a single-celled alga that has a cell wall of silica. Many kinds are planktonic, and extensive fossil deposits have been found

Ernst Haeckel: German biologist, naturalist, philosopher, physician, professor, marine biologist, and artist who discovered, described and named thousands of new species, 1834 to 1919