Molecules to Organisms
Atoms make cells, make tissues, make organs, make systems of organs, make organisms, make ecosystems, make environments, make biomes, make planets Light is made of photons Photons go to plants Photosynthesis absorbs red and blue light, reflects back yellow and green Photosynthesis produces sugar, ATP, Oxygen is a by product The ATP is used to work, as energy Cell uses ATP to make protein by reading the DNA code to decide what amino acids to add to the amino acid chain that makes up a protein Cellular Respiration happens in Mitochondria, the powerhouse of the cell Cells make tissues- tissues make organs- organs make organ systems- organ systems make an organism- organisms make up a population- the environment is a set of interacting populations Photonselectromagnetic spectrum elements water molecule Water under an Electron MicroscopeHydrogen Bond: Positive connects to the negative Water can occur in three states: solid (ice), liquid, or gas (vapor).
sizes of moleculesAn Angstrom is 100 Picometers A Nanometer (NM) is 1000 Picometers (PM) A Micrometer (μm) is 1000 Nanometers (NM) A nanometer is a unit of spatial measurement that is 10-9 meter, or one billionth of a meter.   what it means to be alive organic compoundsIn chemistry, an organic compound is generally any chemical compound that contains carbon. Four major categories are found in all living things:
 mitosis photosynthesisQuantum superposition: The feature of a quantum system whereby it exists in several separate quantum states at the same time. A photon can be in many places at the same time. how dna makes proteins and then cells, tissues, organs...organelles Nucleus The presence of a defined nucleus distinguishes a eukaryotic from prokaryotic cell. It controls all cellular activity and contains the cell’s genetic information. With the exception of translation, all steps of gene expression (including DNA replication and transcription) occur here, thereby allowing careful gene regulation in eukaryotes. Cell Wall This is a rigid layer encompassing cells of bacteria, algae, fungi and plant cells. It determines cell shape and provides tensile strength, structural support and protection against osmotic pressure. Bacteria are either gram-positive or gram-negative – their cell walls are composed of a peptidoglycan. In gram-negative bacteria, there is a cell wall between a plasma membrane and a permeable outer membrane. In gram-positive bacteria there is one plasma membrane, which is surrounded by a thicker cell wall. In contrast, eukaryotic cell walls (in fungi, algae, and higher plants) are composed principally of polysaccharides e.g. fungal cell walls are composed of chitin whilst higher plants and most algae cell walls are principally cellulose microfibrils. Centriole These are found in animal cells and uncommonly in some lower plant cells. Each centriole is composed of nine short lengths of microtubules each associated with 2 partial microtubules which are clustered together into cylinders. Two of these multi-subunit centrioles are arranged together to form an organized centrosome. Centrosomes are involved in mitosis as the main microtubule organizing center and is required to build the mitotic spindle. Chloroplast This double-membraned plant organelle in is similar in some ways to the mitochondria of animal cells. The outer membrane of the chloroplast is freely permeable to small molecules via porins unlike the inner membrane which allows molecular passage via specific membrane transporters. The chloroplast has a third membrane – the thylakoid membrane. This is required for the electron transport chain in order to generate energy (ATP). The chloroplast is responsible for the chemiosmotic reactions by which carbon dioxide is converted into carbohydrates and amino acids, fatty acids amongst other macromolecules. Cilia and Flagella These are cell protrusions involved in motion - when they beat, flagella propel an entire cell forwards whilst cilia brush material across an area. Both are constructed of a cylindrical arrangement of 9 filaments consisting of a complete and a partial which differ in length. There are also two additional microtubules which form the center of the bundle. The mechanism of motion involves energy (ATP) and the sliding of microtubules past one another – the action occurs when cross-bridges of the motor protein dynein extend from the complete microtubule of one filament to the partial microtubule of the adjacent filament. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) This organelle is a single membrane categorized as smooth or rough ER. The core structural difference is the presence of ribosomes embedded on the outer membrane surface of the rough ER – thus the rough ER is key in protein synthesis. In contrast, the smooth ER has no ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis. Golgi complex This organelle is composed of stacks of flat membranous sacs (cisternae) and its involved vesicles. The Golgi complex receives macromolecules such as proteins from the ER and further acts on them by processing and subsequently sorting them for transport to their destinations. Lysosomes These are the main catabolic organelle in eukaryotic cells. They contain hydrolyticenzymes to digest macromolecular cell components such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids. All of these enzymes are within the lysosome at an acidic pH maintained by an ATPase which pumps protons in from the cytoplasm. Numerous degradative pathways involve lysosomes – phagocytosis, endocytosis and autophagy. Together, these pathways encompass degradation of both external and internal components. Mitochondria These double-membraned organelles are crucial in generating energy in eukaryotic cells. The inner membrane is highly folded into cristae. Its impermeability to most small ions and molecules maintains the proton gradient for ATP synthesis. In contrast, the outer membrane is freely permeable to small molecules due to the presence of porins. Additionally, the mitochondrion is responsible for the production of some steroids, processing of calcium ions and governing cell death. Peroxisomes These membrane-bound organelles contain enzymes for numerous biochemical pathways e.g. the oxidation of compounds including hydrogen peroxide, amino acids, uric acid and fatty acids. Ribosomes This organelle is assembled of a small and large subunit each composed of ribosomal RNA molecules and proteins. Ribosomes may either be free in the cytoplasm or embedded on the outer surface membrane of the rough ER. Their functionis to act as the platform for synthesize protein synthesis from their constituent amino acids.. Vacuoles These are membrane-bound, fluid-filled structures most common in plant and fungal cells required for molecular degradation and storage, detoxing and waste management. They maintain turgor pressure in the cell, thereby providing support and structure. cell membrane cellular respiration/ electron transport chainCellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The citric acid cycle – also known as the TCA cycle or the Krebs cycle – is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, into adenosine triphosphate and carbon dioxide.
levels of organizationimmortal cell linesHeLa (/ˈheɪlɑː/; also Hela or hela) is an immortal cell line used in scientific research. It is the oldest and most commonly used human cell line. The line was derived from cervical cancer cells taken on February 8, 1951 from Henrietta Lacks, a patient who died of cancer on October 4, 1951. interacting body systems Our Planet's Interacting systems4 major interacting systems: Geosphere Hydrosphere Atmosphere Biosphere homeostasisThe tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements, especially as maintained by physiological processes. Homeostatic regulation involves three parts or mechanisms: 1) the receptor 2) the control center 3) the effector The nervous and endocrine systems exert the ultimate control over homeostasis because they coordinate the functions of the body's systems. How the body maintains homeostasis: Regulation of
 Test PrepFrom Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes 1. (HS-LS1-1) Structure Of DNA 2. (HS-LS1-2) Interacting Systems 3. (HS-LS1-3) Homeostasis 4. (HS-LS1-4) Mitosis 5. (HS-LS1-5) Photosynthesis 6. (HS-LS1-6) Organic Compounds 7. (HS-LS1-7) Cellular Respiration sample questionsThe structure, properties, and transformations of matter can best be explained by which of the following? A. The way in which electromagnetic radiation interacts with different substances B. Gravitational forces from the environment on subatomic particles C. The number of atoms of an element in one mole of that substance D. Attraction and repulsion between electric charges at the atomic level Water and ammonia molecules are roughly the same size and the same mass but ammonia boils at -28°F (-33°C) and water boils at 212°F (100°C). What can we conclude about the intermolecular forces between water and ammonia? A. Water has stronger intermolecular forces B. Ammonia has stronger intermolecular forces C. The intermolecular forces are the same strength D. Not enough information is given Polymers are substances that are often flexible and durable. These properties are best explained by the fact that polymers are– A. large molecules synthesized through complex laboratory procedures. B. made, predominantly, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. C. molecules consisting of long chains of repeating units of atoms. D. substances produced by plants that have these properties. The melting points and boiling points of substances can lead to inferences about the intermolecular attraction of the atoms of these substances because higher melting and boiling points indicate that– A. the atomic mass of the substances is smaller. B. the substances produce exothermic reactions. C. atomic radii increase as heat is added. D. more energy is needed to separate molecules. Which of the following best explains how the contact force friction arises from fundamental forces? A. Friction is the result of heat generated from the mechanical energy of two objects that are in motion. B. Friction is a combination of all of the mechanical forces on two objects in contact with each other, if one or the other is moving. C. Friction is the result of electromagnetic forces between charged particles constituting two contact surfaces. D. Friction results from the opposition to motion resulting from the chemical bonds within the materials of bodies in contact. An incomplete diagram of the process of photosynthesis is provided below.  What is the missing component representing the substance taken into the plant? A. Oxygen B. Soil C. Water D. Sugar A test tube is filled with water and a green plant called elodea. When the plant is exposed to sunlight, it begins to produce bubbles. Which of the following is the most likely conclusion for the identity of the gas in the bubbles?  A. Oxygen B. Carbon dioxide C. Water vapor D. Hydrogen Which of the following statements regarding the energy produced during cellular respiration is most accurate? A. The majority of the energy produced is lost to the environment as heat. B. The energy must be transferred across the cell membrane to be used. C. The energy produced must be stored in specialized organelles within the cell. D. The amount of energy produced is greater than the amount of energy required. Students are modeling cellular respiration using beads of different colors to represent different elements. Joining the beads together represents formation of chemical compounds. The students can best represent the process of cellular respiration by– A. joining all of the beads together to create the longest string possible. B. organizing beads into groups based on their colors and then joining them. C. combining beads of random colors in combinations all of the same length. D. taking apart combinations of beads, then joining them in new combinations. Shown here is an incomplete chemical equation for the reaction known as photosynthesis. 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → 6O2 + ____ Which of the following substances correctly completes the equation? A. Water B. Carbon dioxide C. Glucose D. Oxygen The graph provided shows the level of dissolved carbon dioxide in the environment of an aquatic plant over a twenty-four hour period. The shaded portion of the graph represents the time in the daily cycle of the plant when which of the following is happening?  A. The plant switches from photosynthesis to metabolizing glucose. B. The plant is producing glucose at the highest levels of the day. C. The rate of photosynthesis is increasing due to increased sunlight. D. Levels of dissolved oxygen are increasing at a similarly rapid rate. Yeast is placed in a sugar solution in a sealed flask. What changes to the environment of the flask would support the claim that the yeast is performing anaerobic respiration? A. Decreasing CO2, increasing glucose, stable oxygen B. Increasing CO2, decreasing glucose, stable oxygen C. Stable CO2, decreasing glucose, increasing oxygen D. Increasing CO2, increasing glucose, decreasing oxygen  With the information provided in the table and illustration, which of the following is the most reasonable conclusion as to the classifications of the bacteria in the three test tubes? A. #1 = obligate anaerobes, #2 = facultative anaerobes, #3 = obligate aerobes B. #1 = facultative aerobes, #2 = obligate anaerobes, #3 = obligate anaerobes C. #1 = obligate aerobes, #2 = facultative anaerobes, #3 = obligate anaerobes D. #1 = obligate aerobes, #2 = obligate anaerobes, #3 = facultative anaerobes Sugar produced as a result of photosynthesis is made up of which of the following elements? A. Hydrogen, Magnesium, Carbon B. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen C. Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen D. Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Calcium  In the diagram of cellular processes provided, what terms correctly identify the missing labels? A. 1 = Chemical energy, 2 = Carbon dioxide, 3 = Respiration B. 1 = Light energy, 2 = Carbon dioxide, 3 = Respiration C. 1 = Light energy, 2 = Diatomic oxygen, 3 = Oxidation D. 1 = Heat energy, 2 = Carbon dioxide, 3 = Respiration Which of the following summarizes the flow of matter and energy in cellular respiration? A. Energy is consumed to rearrange carbon dioxide molecules into glucose and oxygen. B. Carbon and energy are required to transform sugar molecules into water molecules. C. Energy is released when sugar and oxygen are recombined to form carbon dioxide and water. D. As oxygen and carbon dioxide are used, energy and glucose are consumed. As living systems use energy they also transform matter. All of these matter transformations are the result of living systems– A. recombining elements in different ways to form new products. B. changing inorganic elements into new elements that are useful. C. removing the electric charge on large molecules to gain energy. D. using energy to break the bonds of organic compounds. Students placed a small population of single-celled organisms into a test tube of glucose solution. They monitored the concentration of glucose and the population of the organisms over a period of ten days and graphed the data on a single graph.  Which graph of the data would support the claim that the single-celled organisms use the glucose for cellular respiration to live, grow, and reproduce? A  Which of the following provides the best evidence that living things use and recombine carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen to form molecules for new cells? A. The elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are among the most common elements in the universe, but are not the most common elements on Earth. B. The cells of living things contain molecules made of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the same elements found in the glucose consumed by living things. C. The elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are able to bond with each other to form complex molecules that are chains of repeating structures. D. The relative amounts of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen found in the earth’s atmosphere have changed over the history of the planet during which living things evolved. Albumin is a protein produced in the liver of both pigs and humans. Based on this information, what other similarity can we predict between these two organisms? Both organisms– A. have more complex DNA than organisms that do not produce albumin. B. have DNA that codes for globulin, another protein found in the liver. C. produce new sequences of DNA in the same region of their livers. D. share a similar sequence in one section of their DNA that codes for albumin. Which of the following observations would support the claim that DNA determines the structure of proteins produced by cells? A. Organisms that produce proteins have different lengths of DNA. B. Similar DNA sequences are found in organisms that produce the same protein. C. Both DNA and the production of proteins was observed in early life forms. D. DNA is found in the nucleus of all cells that produce proteins. Huntington’s disease (HD) is a condition which results from the inability to produce a certain protein. Which of the following is most likely the cause of Huntington’s disease? A. A structural problem within the nucleus B. An increase in glucose in the blood C. A decrease in the fat intake of their diet D. A miscoding in the DNA sequence Scientists theorize that production of hemoglobin is coded on the molecular location shown below. Which of the following observations could be used as evidence to support this claim?  A. This sequence of DNA is adjacent to another section that codes for a blood protein. B. This sequence was found to be identical in a group of people who produce functioning hemoglobin. C. This section of DNA is different in people who are unable to produce functioning hemoglobin. D. All people who were unable to produce functioning hemoglobin had a DNA sequence of the same length. If two organisms are able to carry out the same life function, we can expect to find which of the following? A. Both organisms have specialized cells for this function. B. This function evolved in the two organisms at the same time. C. Both organisms live in the same habitat. D. These organisms have an identical number of chromosomes. Which of the following processes is directly responsible for growth in living organisms? A. The division of cells into two identical cells B. The movement of water across a cell membrane C. The production of reproductive cells called gametes D. The exchange of the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide DNA replication is an important part of cellular division because correct replication– A. ensures that identical and complete genetic information is passed to both daughter cells. B. produces mutations that usually are advantageous for the survival of the organism. C. combines sperm and egg to form a zygote that will develop into a new organism. D. communicates information about the cellular environment to adjacent cells. Differentiation of cells is responsible for which feature of complex organisms? Without differentiation, complex organisms would not– A. require nutrients for growth. B. be multicellular. C. have specialized tissues. D. respond to their environment. Mitosis maintains complex organisms by which of the following processes? A. The removal of waste from the body B. The exchange of gas with the environment C. The formation of sperm and egg D. The healing of a cut after an injury Complex organisms develop specialized tissues as a direct result of which of the following processes? A. Cellular respiration B. Cellular differentiation C. Cellular growth D. Cellular division All of the following are true of body systems within an animal, EXCEPT– A. each system within the body is made up of multiple parts. B. body systems interact with other body systems at a given time. C. each part of a system only has functions for that system. D. systems can respond to the needs of the animal. Animals respond to threats in their environment by attacking or escaping. Either response is the result, mostly, of interactions between– A. the circulatory system and the reproductive system. B. blood circulation and hormone production. C. the nervous system and the muscular system. D. respiratory rates and defense against pathogens. The circulatory system requires the intervention of another body system to help regulate and deliver blood. Which of the following actions of tissues in another system contribute to the circulatory system doing its job of delivering blood? A. Contractions of muscles B. Secretions of glands C. Breakdown of food D. Production of gametes Which of the following correctly provides an example of the hierarchical structure of living organisms? A. Organisms that live in the ocean, as opposed to on land, have developed different ways to obtain oxygen. B. Human blood cells are specialized to transfer oxygen throughout the body. C. The digestive system of animals is made up of organs that work together to break down food. D. Reptiles and amphibians have a shared ancestry, so many of their body structures are similar. Which of the following best represents hierarchical structural organization in plants? A. Different cells with xylem tissue work together to transport water throughout the entire plant. B. Some plants have changed little over millions of years of evolution, while others have changed quite a bit. C. Many aspects of plant growth are influenced by access to light, water, and minerals. D. Thorns are an adaptation some plants use to protect themselves from predators. All of the following are true of body systems within an animal, EXCEPT– A. each system within the body is made up of multiple parts. B. body systems interact with other body systems at a given time. C. each part of a system only has functions for that system. D. systems can respond to the needs of the animal. Animals respond to threats in their environment by attacking or escaping. Either response is the result, mostly, of interactions between– A. the circulatory system and the reproductive system. B. blood circulation and hormone production. C. the nervous system and the muscular system. D. respiratory rates and defense against pathogens. The circulatory system requires the intervention of another body system to help regulate and deliver blood. Which of the following actions of tissues in another system contribute to the circulatory system doing its job of delivering blood? A. Contractions of muscles B. Secretions of glands C. Breakdown of food D Production of gametes Which of the following correctly provides an example of the hierarchical structure of living organisms? A. Organisms that live in the ocean, as opposed to on land, have developed different ways to obtain oxygen. B. Human blood cells are specialized to transfer oxygen throughout the body. C. The digestive system of animals is made up of organs that work together to break down food. D. Reptiles and amphibians have a shared ancestry, so many of their body structures are similar. Which of the following best represents hierarchical structural organization in plants? A. Different cells with xylem tissue work together to transport water throughout the entire plant. B. Some plants have changed little over millions of years of evolution, while others have changed quite a bit. C. Many aspects of plant growth are influenced by access to light, water, and minerals. D. Thorns are an adaptation some plants use to protect themselves from predators. Stomates are small openings on the leaves of plants. The following data was recorded for the stomates of a particular plant under various conditions of moisture in the air as measured by relative humidity.  The data in the table could be used to support which explanation of a function of stomates? Stomates are responsible for– A. preventing the loss of moisture from the plant to the environment. B. regulating the flow of water from one cell to another in the plant. C. ridding the plant of excess water vapor in dry conditions. D. allowing the plant to absorb water from the soil after it rains. Students recorded their heart rates in several situations. Which of the following data collected would illustrate a feedback response? A. All students had a constant heart rate while they were at rest. B. All of the student’s heart rates are within a certain range. C. The heart rates of males were higher on average than females. D. Every student had an elevated heart rate during exercise. Negative feedback mechanisms are common among plants and animals while positive feedback mechanisms are very rare. Why are negative feedback mechanisms so much more prevalent? A. Positive feedback mechanisms have a higher energy cost. B. Negative feedback mechanisms provide energy for cell growth. C. Positive feedback mechanisms evolved much later than negative feedback mechanisms. D. Only negative feedback mechanisms lead to homeostasis, important for life. Of the investigations described below, which could be used to provide data to test the idea that root growth in plants is a feedback mechanism in response to environmental conditions? Of the investigations described below, which could be used to provide data to test the idea that root growth in plants is a feedback mechanism in response to environmental conditions? A. Measure the roots of different kinds of plants that live in the same conditions in different habitats. B. Remove the roots of plants and monitor their ability to continue to grow at various temperatures. C. Measure the growth rates of various plants with different size roots living under the same environmental conditions. D. Grow the same kind of plants in various levels of soil moisture and record the length of their roots.
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