TaxonomyThe science of naming, describing and classifying organisms and includes all plants, animals and microorganisms of the world. Every species is organized by Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.  Phylogenetic Tree  The three Domains are Bacteria, Eukaryota, and Archaea Bacteria are prokaryotes, they do not have a nucleus Eukaryotes have a nucleus, this group includes plants, animals, fungi, and many single celled eukaryotes Archaea are very ancient, some live in environments that few living beings can thrive in StromatolitesAre about 3.5 billion years old, calcareous mound built up of layers of lime-secreting cyanobacteria and trapped sediment, found in Precambrian rocks as the earliest known fossils, and still being formed in lagoons in Australasia. Cyanobacteria are very ancient life forms, perhaps only Archaea are older.  FOssil DatingRadiometric Dating The use of radioactive isotopes as a measure for determining the age of a rock or fossil Radioactive isotope An unstable form of an element that decays into another element by radiation, that is, by emitting energetic particles Half-Life The amount of time it takes for one half of a substance to decay Uranium-238 Has a half life of 4.5 billion years Potassium-40 Has a half life of 1.3 billion years Types of lifeProkaryotes Found to have existed 3.5 billion years ago, a microscopic single-celled organism that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized organelles. Prokaryotes include the bacteria and cyanobacteria.
Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes  Bateria may have: Flagella whip-like appendages used to move around, like arms Pili short, hair-like appendages extending from the surface, used to stick to surfaces Capsule sticky coating, used to stick to surfaces Types of bacteriaCyanobacteria are a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis and are the only photosynthetic prokaryotes able to produce oxygen. Round bacteria are referred to as cocci (singular: coccus), an example is Streptococcus Cylindrical, capsule-shaped bacteria are named bacilli (singular: bacillus), bacteria that make yogurt: Lactobacillus bulgaricus Spiral bacteria are called spirilla (singular: spirillum) Lyme disease and syphillis are caused by this type of bacteria  Binary FissionCell division in prokaryotes is called binary fission, asexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two new bodies, cells transfer genetic information by making contact. Both Archaea and Bacteria can reproduce through binary fission.  are all bacteria bad? Some but not all bacteria are pathogens: a disease causing agent Some bacteria are purely beneficial and help with symbiosis: the relationship in which two different organisms live together, often interdependently. Nitrogen Fixation: Converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use to grow
 ArchaeaThe other domain of prokaryotic life, tend to live in extreme environments Grouped according to where they live (pg 371):
Some Archaea live in hydrothermal ventsIn deep sea vents, heated fluids rise to the surface through openings in the seafloor. Hydrothermal fluid temperatures can reach 400°C (750°F) or more, but the archaea do not boil under the extreme pressure of the deep ocean. As they pour out of a vent, the fluids encounter cold, oxygenated seawater, causing another, more rapid series of chemical reactions to occur. Sulfur and other materials precipitate, or come out of solution, to form metal-rich towers and deposits of minerals on the seafloor. The sea floor is an anaerobic environment, no oxygen
Who lives thereIt is theorized that this is where life on Earth originatedDeep sea mining might be connected to cobalt miningCobalt is used for phones and computer batteries, some companies are interested in mining it from the deep sea. Alternatives to cobalt are needed so companies don't consider deep sea mining a viable option. Most Cobalt currently comes from Democratic Republic of Congo DR Congo produces 60% of the world's supply of cobalt. The mineral is used to produce lithium-ion batteries used to power electric cars, laptops and smartphones. However, the extraction process has been beset with concerns of illegal mining, human rights abuses and corruption. What are alternatives to cobalt?A good battery is able to store current and transfer it, conduct heat, and cool quickly. Other possibilities
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Some of the methods that are used to develop Bio techSelective breeding The ancestral form of trait selection, when people intentionally breed plants and animals to have certain characteristics. When wild plants were bred into food crops.  Corn  Genetic Modification in a LabGenetic Engineering Genetic Engineering with Agrobaterium tumefaciens  DNA samples are studied through PCR Electrophoresis to see if the target DNA is in the sample.
Results to read  Genetic Engineering of MosquitoesPCR in Crime Scene InvestigationBut it is not perfect What are some possible issues with this biotech?That applies to plants, what if we GM people?Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna have been awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their development of CRISPR/Cas9 genetic editing, this video is from 2015. there are many ethical issues to considerStem Cell OrgansBiomedical Engineering includes mechanical, Biological, chemical ENGINEERING and computer softwareUpcoming issues to resolveAntibiotic Resistance Really, it's a very big deal It is better to wash your hands than use hand sanitizer, otherwise, the bacteria that survive are the ones that get to pass on their genes Genetics ContinuedChapters 11 and 12 Gregory Mendel’s research on genetics. What is a Punnett Square and how do we use it? Natural selection and adaptation: insects and plants adapting to chemicals, how organisms find ways to survive. Mutation A change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA Allele Genetic trait Recessive Allele An allele that is visible in the organism only if to copies of the allele are present Dominant Allele an allele that can mask the presence of a recessive allele Heterozygous Having two different alleles Homozygous Having two identical alleles Phenotype The visible or measureable features of an individual. Genotype The particular genetic makeup of an individual Gametes Specialized reproductive cells that carry one copy of each chromosome (they are haploid) Haploid Half the genetic information compared to most cells, one copy of every chromosome Diploid Having two copies of every chromosome Homologous chromosomes The two copies of each chromosome in a diploid cell. Meiosis A specialized type of cell division that generated genetically unique haploid gametes Recombination An early stage of development in which maternal and paternal chromosomes pair and physically exchange DNA segments  Independent Assortment The principle that alleles of different genes are distributed independently of one another during meiosis  Stem Cell Technology to help Same Sex couples reproduce: In vitro GametogenesisZygote A cell that is capable of developing into an adult organism. Embryo An early stage of development reached when a zygote undergoes cell division to form a multicellular structure. Cystic FibrosisCarrier An individual who is heterozygous for a particular gene of interest, and can pass the recessive allele to offspring.  Punnett Square A diagram used to determine the probabilities of offspring having particular genotypes b looking at the genotypes of the parents  CRISPR (/ˈkrɪspər/) (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) Gene editing technology. The 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry has gone to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna “for the development of a method for genome editing.” That method, formally known as CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing but often called simply CRISPR, allows scientists to precisely cut any strand of DNA they wish. CF is Recessive, Huntington's Disease is Dominant With an autosomal dominant trait, if one parent has it, the children have a 50% chance of inheriting that gene, if they have that gene, they have the trait.  Pedigree Chart Hemophilia is an inherited bleeding disorder in which the blood does not clot properly Hemophilia is a sex-linked trait and recessive. The recessive gene for hemophilia is carried on the X chromosome. Males inherit one affected X chromosome from the mother and, less commonly, females inherit an affected X chromosome from both mother and father experience the disease. Females who inherit an affected X chromosome from either mother or father are carriers for the disease. More genetic complexitiesAutosomes Paired chromosomes present in both males and females; all chromosomes except the X and Y chromosomes X Linked trait a phenotype determined by an allele on an X chromosome Incomplete Dominance Heterozygotes have a phenotype that is intermediate between the dominant and the recessive genes. Wavy hair is an example Codominance Both alleles contribute equally to the phenotype An example is Blood Type The three blood types are A, B, and O The possible combinations that we inherit from parent are: OO, AO, BO, AB, AA, and BB Both parental alleles contribute equally to the phenotype O is recessive So if you are blood type A, you may be AA homozygous or AO heterozygous Different blood types have different surface markers, not every blood type is compatible:  Genes move with individualsGenetic drift a change in the frequency of an allele within a population over time  As individuals move around we can observe genetic drift Bottleneck Effect Something happens leaving only a few individuals to reproduce   Founder Effect The new population might not fully represent the ancestral population  Tasmanian devils and population bottleneck Natural Selection https://microbenotes.com/natural-vs-artificial-selection/microbenotes.com/natural-vs-artificial-selection/  GENETIC SEQUENCES IN CHROMOSOMES ARE CALLED GENES Gene plural noun: genes A unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and determines some characteristic of the offspring. "proteins are coded directly by genes" A distinct sequence of nucleotides forming part of a chromosome, the order of which determines the order of monomers in a polypeptide or nucleic acid molecule which a cell (or virus) may synthesize. Allele Variation of a genetic trait Dominant allele An allele that produces the same phenotype whether its paired allele is identical or different Recessive allele An allele that produces its characteristic phenotype only when its paired allele is identical Coding DNA Sequence of a gene's DNA that transcribes into protein structures Phenotype Physical genetic expression Genotype Internal genetic expression Gene expression Conversion of the information encoded in a gene first into messenger RNA and then to a protein  CHROMOSOMES GO THROUGH CHANGES TO CREATE A VARIETY OF GAMETESGamete: a Sex cell Crossing over occurs between prophase I and metaphase I of meiosis, some genes are swapped to create unique gametes.  Gamete production is meiosis. A gamete is a mature haploid male or female germ cell which is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote. Gregor Mendel Austrian Monk and botanist, he observed peas to see the traits that were inherited by their offspring.  Punnett SquareThe Punnett square is a square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a particular cross or breeding experiment. It is named after Reginald C. Punnett. The diagram is used by biologists to determine the probability of an offspring having a particular genotype.  Guinea Pig Fur Color  Cystic Fibrosis  Cystic Fibrosis  More COmplex Genetic COmbinationMonohybrid cross a breeding experiment between P generation (parental generation) organisms that differ in a single given trait. The P generation organisms are homozygous for the given trait. Dihybrid cross A cross between two different lines/genes that differ in two observed traits. According to Mendel's statement, between the alleles of both these loci there is a relationship of completely dominant - recessive traits.   Codominance  X-Linked Traits let's learn more about Types of cells
Stem Cells
Adult Stem Cells/ Somatic Stem cells: Not specialized yet Pluripotent Stem Cells Have the capacity to self-renew by dividing and to develop into the three primary germ cell layers of the early embryo during gastrulation and therefore into all cells of the adult body, but not extra-embryonic tissues such as the placenta. Multipotent Stem Cells A cell with the ability to differentiate into a limited number of cell types in the body. Embryonic Stem Cells Cells from embryonic blastocyst, a few day old fetus, they get these from "leftover" IVF clinic embryos. Totipotent Stem Cells Can form all the cell types in a body, plus the extraembryonic, or placental, cells. These are embryonic cells within the first couple of cell divisions after fertilization. ​ 
Types of cells
Bone Cells
Blood Cells
​Red blood cell and white blood cell 
Muscle Cells
Fat Cells
Skin Cells
Stem cell technology for skin recovery Nerve Cells
Stem Cell treatment for vision epithelial cells​Epithelial cells line the stomach the intestines, our whole digestive tract, they have structures that help them absorb nutrients ​ 
Cell MembranesWhat all of these cells have in common is the cell membrane, membranes are made of a phospholipid bilayer an have channels that allow certain things in and out of the cell. 
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/3-1-the-cell-membrane/ Extracellular: Outside of the cell Intracellular: Inside the cell ​ Cell Membrane ReviewCholesterol in cell membranes Around 25-30% of a cell membrane has cholesterol. Cholesterol can fit into spaces between phospholipids and prevent water-soluble molecules from diffusing across the membrane. Cholesterol helps cells keep their shape and stay flexible. 
Membrane proteins
Membrane proteins do a series of jobs for the cell, receptor proteins relay signals between the cell's internal and external environments. Transport proteins move molecules and ions across the membrane. ​ 
​Transport Proteins Are channels in the cell membrane, the fluid mosaic model, that allow things in and out of the cell. 
Aquaporins are water channels for the cell ​ 
Receptor Proteins Are like antennae, they signal other cells and communicate with the outside of the cell, they may receive hormones or other messages 
Marker proteins
Extend across the cell membrane and serve to identify the cell. The immune system uses these proteins to tell friendly cells from foreign invaders. They are as unique as fingerprints. 
These proteins and elements are all part of the
Fluid-mosaic model A mosaic of components —including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates—that gives the membrane a fluid character. 
Cell Transport Types
Osmosis
the spontaneous, no energy needed, movement of solvent molecules through a selectively permeable membrane. From higher concentration to lower concentration to equalize the solution on both sides. 
​Simple Diffusion Moves with the flow, from high concentration to low concentration Facilitated Diffusion Movement with the flow/ with the concentration gradient, from high concentration to low, with the help of a transport protein. Passive Transport A movement of ions and other atomic or molecular substances across cell membranes without need of energy input, so no ATP needed, using a specialized channel protein in the cell membrane. ​Active Transport Movement against the regular gradient flow, from low concentration to high concentration. Movement of ions or molecules through a cell membrane using specialized proteins with enzymes, using ATP. Endocytosis Bringing things in, like large molecules, the cell will form a vesicle to bring something into the cell. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis The molecules that will enter the cell need to have a special signal so the cell can identify them Pinocytosis Taking in fluids, cell drinking Exocytosis Forming a vesicle to transport a molecule 
​Sodium Potassium Pump A form of active transport, transports sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell Very important in the function of neurons so action potentials can be fired Different Solutions​Tonicity ​measure of the osmotic pressure gradient Hypertonic Lower concentration of water, more solute molecules, makes cells shrink like pickles Hypotonic Less concentrated solution, more solute inside the cell, water will enter the cell and the cell might burst Isotonic concentration (of let's say salt) inside and outside the cell are equal We can see osmosis with an eggsperimentThe ten major systems of the bodyParts of the brain ​ How the heart works ​ The respiratory system Cell Specialization in Plants and anmals |
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