How Cells DivideCells divide to produce more identical cells with the same genes, this is how tissues grow and regenerate, this process is called mitosis. Mitosis A type of cell division that results in two cells, each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth. Book Vocabulary Words: pg 147 Gene A sequence of DNA that contains the information to make at least one protein Gene Expression The process of using DNA instructions to make proteins. Genotype Genetic makeup of an organism Phenotype The physical qualities of an organism including observable or not observable traits Alleles Alternative versions of the same gene that have different nucleotide sequences. Zooming into DNA Tissue An organized group of different cell types that work together to carry out a particular function. Different types of cells make different tissues. There are Many Cell Types:
Stem Cells Immature cells that can divide and differentiate into specialized cell types
 Cells are constantly replicatingCell Division The process by which a cell reproduces itself; it is normal and essential for growth and healing of tissues Sister Chromatid One or more identical DNA molecules that make up a duplicated chromosome following DNA replication Centromere The specialized region of a chromosome where the sister chromatids are joined Cytokinesis The physical division of a cell into two daughter cells   Stages of mitosis Interphase:
Prophase:
Prometaphase:
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Interphase
 Meiosis  Cell Division , electron microscopy, we will look at min 6:06 to 8:55 MeiosisMeiosis: A specialized type of cell division that generates unique haploid gametes. Generates sex cells. Gamete: specialized reproductive cells that carry one copy of each chromosome, sperm are male gametes, egg are female gametes Haploid: having only one copy of every chromosome  Exchange of genetic material, new gene combinations are formed on chromatids (recombination), all four haploid daughter cells will be genetically distinct (sister chromatids are no longer identical). motor proteinsStem CellsAdult Stem Cells (Somatic Stem Cells) Stems cells located in tissues that help maintain and regenerate those tissues Multipotent A cell with the ability to differentiate into a limited number of cell types in the body. Embryonic Stem Cells Stem cells that make up an early embryo which can differentiate into nearly every cell type in the body Pluripotent A cell with the ability to differentiate into nearly any cell in the body. Cancer and the Cell CycleCell Death: Apoptosis
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WHat proteins are made through DNA Translation?How can DNA actually code for a trait? Translated proteins are encapsulated in vesicles in the endoplasmic reticulum, they are transported out of the cell and into the tissues where they are needed. Different Amino Acids code for Different TraitsKeratin is in many structuresHair, Feather, Nails, Hooves, Scales, Feathers... a main amino acid is cysteine which has sulphur, what we smell when hair burns. Most insects have a protein called chitin Did dinosaurs adapt and become dinosaurs? Sea Lion Whiskers are made of keratin, they also have more hemoglobin to go deep sea diving and very flexible bones and cartilage for deep sea pressure. Proteins that carry and store oxygenHemoglobin Oxygen transport, in red blood cells, made of four peptide/ amino acid chains, some of the amino acids are Leucine, methionine, lysine, tryptophane, and tyrosine. There are approximately 3 million hemoglobin molecules in just one red blood cell. Myoglobin Oxygen storage, in muscles and heart muscles, one poly peptide chain 153 amino acids long Watch the first few min of this: Proteins that Help flying Creatures GlowPhotoproteins help animals glow. Luciferase photoprotein produced by dinoflagellates, red algae Proteins that keep fish from freezingNotothetinoid a type of fish that produces Antifreeze proteins (AFPs), these proteins contain 37 amino acids  There are different types of AntiFreeze Proteins and other things that help living beings prevent freezing such as dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) in cyanobacteria. Glowing Ocean BeingsGreen Fluorescent Protein (GFP) in sea creatures composed of 238 amino acid residues  Proteins that help birds see magnetic fieldsMagnetoreception may be connected to cryptochrome proteins, Cry1, Cry2, Cry4, or magnetite within the animal, Cry1 has 586 amino acids
Proteins that help scavengers eatAntibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily, blood proteins. Digestive Enzymes are Proteins. Proteins are part of snake venomProteins constitute 90-95% of venom's dry weight and they are responsible for almost all of its biological effects. Male and juvenile female platypi possess spurs on each hind leg that are connected to paired venom glands, platypus venom contains 19 different peptide fractions. Antibodies are ProteinsAn antibody (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses Genes are replicated as cells MultiplyCells at WorkDNA is made of nucleic acids or base pairs that are coiled up into chromosomes that live in the nucleus of the cell. DNA replicates to make more cells and codes for proteins. Both DNA replication and transcription involve the generation of a new copy of the DNA in a cell. DNA transcription replicates the DNA into RNA DNA replication makes another copy of DNA.   DNA Replication and transcription happen inside the nucleus while translation happens outside  mRNA: messenger RNA, single strand, leaves the nucleus to make proteins tRNA: transfer RNA, helps decode a messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence into a protein by releasing an amino acid Ribosomes: float in the cytoplasm, help assemble proteins by matching mRNA and tRNA
5' to 3' There is a 5 Prime and a 3 Prime  Histones Histones are proteins that help organize DNA into coils  Electron Microscope ImagesMicroscopyThe microscopes we have in class  DNA StructureDNA is too small to see with our class microscopes  WHo discovered it? Scanning Electron Microscope
VocabularyDNA: is the molecule of heredity, common to all life forms, that is passed from parents to offspring. DeoxyriboNucleic Acid DNA exists in the nuclei of most cells, DNA molecules are organized into structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes consist of a single long DNA molecule wrapped around proteins. If a single DNA molecule were stretched out it would be 1 to 3 meters long Nucleotides: the building blocks of DNA Each has a sugar, a phosphate, and a base, one of four bases Bases: A, T, C, and G Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Uracil in RNA (U) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) The sequence is unique in each person Double helix: the spiral structure formed by two strands of DNA nucleotides bound together Hydrogen bonds: or base pairing hold the strands together Polymer: made up of building block molecules. Biopolymers made of monomers Genetic Code: the nucleotide triplets of DNA and RNA molecules that carry genetic information in living cells. DNA Profile: a visual representation of a person's unique DNA sequence Genome: one complete set of genetic instructions encoded in the DNA of an organism. Amino acids: The building blocks of proteins, there are 20 different amino acids All amino acids have the same basic core structure but each also has a unique chemical side group. They bind together in linear chain, peptide chain. Protein: A macromolecule made up of repeating sub-units known as amino acids, which determine the shape and function of a protein. Proteins play critical roles in organisms. Gene: a sequence of DNA that contains the information to make at least one protein Gene expression: the process of using DNA instructions to make proteins Phenotype: the physical attributes of an organism including observable and internal, non observable traits Alleles: alternative versions of the same gene that have different nucleotide sequences Regulatory sequence: the part of the gene that determines the timing, amount, and location of a protein produced Coding Sequence: part of a gene that specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein, identity, shape, and function of proteins. Messenger RNA (mRNA): RNA copy of an original DNA sequence made during transcription Transcription: Transcription is the first step of DNA based gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Translation: the second stage of gene expression. Translation 'reads' mRNA sequences and assembles the corresponding amino acids to make proteins. RNA Polymerase: the enzyme that accomplishes transcription. RNA polymerase copies a strand of DNA into a complementary strand or RNA, Ribosome: the cellular machinery that assembles proteins during the process of translation. checks for a matching codon and anticodon. Codon: a sequence of three mRNA nucleotides that specifies a particular amino acid Anti-codon: the complementary side on tRNA that leads to release of an aminoacid Anticodon=tRNA, Codon=mRNA Peptide: a compound consisting of two or more amino acids linked in a chain How DNA Makes ProteinHow Art Helps us See BiologyEnergy Transfer within a Trophic SYstemThis week is for review since we have been taking about energy transfer and trophic cycles. Etymology of the word trophic: late 19th century: from Greek trophikos, from trophē ‘nourishment’, from trephein ‘nourish’. trophic means to nourish Eating gives us energyIf we eat too much then we store the energy and gain weight. In the United States, 36.5 percent of adults are obese. Another 32.5 percent of American adults are overweight calories in/ Calories out
So if you eat a burger it take an hour of high energy exercise to burn the calories, otherwise you will store some of the energy A full meal is over 1,000 calories. A McDonald's meal with a shake has 1,680 calories and 74 grams of fat Vocabularycalorie: the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius CALORIE 1,000 calories or kilocalorie (Kcal); a capital C in Calorie means "kilocalorie", the Calorie is what we see in food labels Carbohydrates give us caloriesWe need some, in moderation The Glycemic Index (GI) is a relative ranking of carbohydrate in foods according to how they affect blood glucose levels. Carbohydrates with a low GI value (55 or less) are more slowly digested, absorbed and metabolised and cause a lower and slower rise in blood glucose and, therefore usually, insulin levels.  Food that we eat gets broken down into subunits Glycogen a complex animal carbohydrate, made up of liked chains of glucose molecules, that store energy for short-term use Triglyceride a type of lipid found in fat cells that stores excess energy for long term use  Energy is extracted from food by mitochondriaThe process is called aerobic respiration Aerobic Respiration A series of reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen and converts energy stored in food into ATP  There are many parts to the process: Glycolysis a series of reactions that breaks down sugar into smaller units; glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm and is the first step of both aerobic respiration and fermentation. Citric Acid Cycle a set of reactions that takes place in mitochondria and helps extract energy (in the form of high-energy electrons) from food; the second step in aerobic respiration Electron Transport Chain a process that takes place in mitochondria and produces the bulk of ATP during aerobic respiration; the third step in aerobic respiration Oxidative Phosphorylation a process involving a flow of electrons through the electron transport chain  Mitochondria Where ATP is made, membrane bound organelles in the cell that float around the cell, they have their own DNA, they produce ATP using sugar and oxygen and our cells can use that ATP for cell work. Each step in the process of building a protein takes energy, the energy is called ATP. ATP synthase is an enzyme that creates the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP), forming it from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). ATP Adenosine Triphosphate The molecule that cells use to power energy-requiring functions, the cells "currency"  Fermentation a series of chemical reactions that takes place in the absence of oxygen and converts some of the energy stored in food into ATP. Fermentation produces far less ATP than aerobic respiration. |
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