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9/24/2020

Cell Division and Mitosis

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How Cells Divide



Cells divide to produce more identical cells with the same genes, this is how tissues grow and regenerate, this process is called mitosis.

Mitosis

A type of cell division that results in two cells, each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.
​

Book Vocabulary Words: 
​pg 147

Gene 

A sequence of DNA that contains the information to make at least one protein

Gene Expression

The process of using DNA instructions to make proteins.

Genotype

Genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype

The physical qualities of an organism including observable or not observable traits

Alleles

Alternative versions of the same gene that have different nucleotide sequences.

​
Zooming into DNA


​Tissue

An organized group of different cell types that work together to carry out a particular function. Different types of cells make different tissues.

There are Many Cell Types:


  • Bone Cells 
  • Blood Cells
  • Muscle Cells
  • Fat Cells
  • Skin Cells
  • Nerve Cells
  • Endothelial Cells

Stem Cells

Immature cells that can divide and differentiate into specialized cell types
​
  • Brain stem cells can become neural cells
  • Heart stem cells can become cardiac muscle
  • Bone marrow stem cells can become red blood cells 
​
Picture

https://www.medacess.com/about-stem-cells/bone-marrow-derived-stem-cell.html
​


Cells are constantly replicating 



​Cell Division

The process by which a cell reproduces itself; it is normal and essential for growth and healing of tissues

Sister Chromatid

One or more identical DNA molecules that make up a duplicated chromosome following DNA replication
​
Centromere


The specialized region of a chromosome where the sister chromatids are joined

​Cytokinesis

The physical division of a cell into two daughter cells
​
Picture
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Chromatid

Picture
https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/backgrounders/what-mitosis


Stages of mitosis


​
​Interphase:
  • Each chromosome replicates in interphase
  • Resulting in two sister chromatids connected at the centromere. 
  • Chromosomes are loosely gathered in the nucleus 

Prophase:
  • Replicated chromosomes begin to coil up
  • The nuclear membrane begins to disassemble
  • Protein fibers of the mitotic spindle begin to form

Prometaphase:
  • chromosomes condense (shorten) so they are easier to separate
  • spindle fibers attach to chromosomes on both sides at the centromere region

Metaphase
  • ​spindle fibers from opposite ends of the cell pull on chromosomes
  • chromosomes are aligned along the middle of the cell

Anaphase
​
  • spindle fiber shorten and pull sister chromatids to opposite ends of the cell

Telophase
  • an identical set of chromosomes reaches each pole
  • spindle fiber dissemble
  • nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes forming the daughter cell nuclei

Interphase
  • two identical daughter cells are formed, each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell 
​
Picture


https://socratic.org/questions/what-are-the-order-of-the-phases-in-mitosis

​
Meiosis

Picture


https://socratic.org/questions/589fd775b72cff178533a701





​Cell Division , electron microscopy, we will look at min 6:06 to 8:55



Meiosis



​Meiosis: 
A specialized type of cell division that generates unique haploid gametes. Generates sex cells.

Gamete: specialized reproductive cells that carry one copy of each chromosome, sperm are male gametes, egg are female gametes 

Haploid:
 having only one copy of every chromosome
​
Picture

Exchange of genetic material, new gene combinations are formed on chromatids (recombination), 
all four haploid daughter cells will be genetically distinct (sister chromatids are no longer identical).


​https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/33-meiosis/crossing-over.html


motor proteins



Stem Cells



​Adult Stem Cells (Somatic Stem Cells)

Stems cells located in tissues that help maintain and regenerate those tissues

Multipotent

A cell with the ability to differentiate into a limited number of cell types in the body.

Embryonic Stem Cells

Stem cells that make up an early embryo which can differentiate into nearly every cell type in the body

Pluripotent

​
A cell with the ability to differentiate into nearly any cell in the body.
​


Cancer and the Cell Cycle



Cell Death: Apoptosis


Picture
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Cytology-of-apoptosis-The-different-stages-of-apoptotic-cell-death-start-by-cellular_fig3_274013152

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9/19/2020

How Genes make Proteins

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WHat proteins are made through DNA Translation?



How can DNA actually code for a trait?


Translated proteins are encapsulated in vesicles in the endoplasmic reticulum, they are transported out of the cell and into the tissues where they are needed.


Different Amino Acids code for Different Traits



Keratin is in many structures



​Hair, Feather, Nails, Hooves, Scales, Feathers... a main amino acid is cysteine which has sulphur, what we smell when hair burns. 


Most insects have a protein called chitin
​

Did dinosaurs adapt and become dinosaurs?



Sea Lion Whiskers are made of keratin, they also have more hemoglobin to go deep sea diving and very flexible bones and cartilage for deep sea pressure.


​https://www.livescience.com/10549-deep-diving-mammals-black.html



Proteins that carry and store oxygen



​Hemoglobin

Oxygen transport, in red blood cells, made of four peptide/ amino acid chains, some of the amino acids are Leucine, methionine, lysine, tryptophane, and tyrosine.  There are approximately 3 million hemoglobin molecules in just one red blood cell.


Myoglobin

Oxygen storage, in muscles and heart muscles, one poly peptide chain 153 amino acids long


Watch the first few min of this:


Proteins that Help flying Creatures Glow 



​Photoproteins help animals glow.


Luciferase photoprotein produced by dinoflagellates, red algae
​


Proteins that keep fish from freezing



​Notothetinoid
​

a type of fish that produces Antifreeze proteins (AFPs), these proteins contain 37 amino acids 


Picture

There are different types of AntiFreeze Proteins and other things that help living beings prevent freezing such as 
dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) in cyanobacteria.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/antifreeze-proteins
​


Glowing Ocean Beings



Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) in sea creatures composed of 238 amino acid residues
​
Picture
https://reefbuilders.com/2015/04/30/coral-fluorescence-magical/#


Proteins that help birds see magnetic fields



Magnetoreception may be connected to cryptochrome proteins, Cry1, Cry2, Cry4, or magnetite within the animal, Cry1 has 586 amino acids

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/284/5415/760/tab-figures-data

https://www.sciencealert.com/birds-see-magnetic-fields-cryptochrome-cry4-photoreceptor-2018
​


"Humans, have two cryptochromes – CRY1 and CRY2 – which help to control our body clocks. But Lauren Foley from the University of Massachusetts Medical School has found that CRY2 can double as a magnetic sensor."

https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/humans-have-a-magnetic-sensor-in-our-eyes-but-can-we-detect-magnetic-fields

Proteins that help scavengers eat



Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily, blood proteins.

​Digestive Enzymes are Proteins.



https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30216294


Proteins are part of snake venom



​Proteins
 constitute 90-95% of venom's dry weight and they are responsible for almost all of its biological effects.
​

https://www.pnas.org/content/111/25/9205


​Male and juvenile female platypi possess spurs on each hind leg that are connected to paired venom glands,
 platypus venom contains 19 different peptide fractions. 
​

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2965387/#:~:text=It%20is%20known%20that%20platypus,(OvNGF)%20%5B5%5D.


Antibodies are Proteins


An antibody (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses

https://www.livescience.com/antibodies.html
​


Genes are replicated as cells Multiply


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9/12/2020

DNA Replication and Protein SYnthesis

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Cells at Work



DNA is made of nucleic acids or base pairs that are coiled up into chromosomes that live in the nucleus of the cell. 

​DNA replicates to make more cells and codes for proteins.
​
Both DNA replication and transcription involve the generation of a new copy of the DNA in a cell. 

DNA transcription replicates the DNA into RNA 

​
DNA replication makes another copy of DNA
.

Picture
Picture

https://laboratoryinfo.com/dna-replication-vs-transcription/


DNA Replication and transcription happen inside the nucleus while translation happens outside

Picture

mRNA: messenger RNA, single strand, leaves the nucleus to make proteins 

tRNA: transfer RNA, helps decode a messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence into a protein by releasing an amino acid

Ribosomes: float in the cytoplasm, help assemble proteins by matching mRNA and tRNA



5' to 3'

There is a 5 Prime and a 3 Prime
​

Picture
http://thebiologyprimer.com/chapter-dna-synthesis


Histones

Histones are proteins that help organize DNA into coils

Picture
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/histone


Electron Microscope Images



Microscopy



The microscopes we have in class

Picture
http://www.boruhealthmachine.org/
​


DNA Structure



DNA is too small to see with our class microscopes

Picture

WHo discovered it?


Picture

​http://ba-education.com/for/science/dnadiscoverers.html


Scanning Electron Microscope



Vocabulary



​​DNA: is the molecule of heredity, common to all life forms, that is passed from parents to offspring. DeoxyriboNucleic Acid

DNA exists in the nuclei of most cells, DNA molecules are organized into structures called chromosomes.  Chromosomes consist of a single long DNA molecule wrapped around proteins. If a single DNA molecule were stretched out it would be 1 to 3 meters long 

​Nucleotides: the building blocks of DNA

Each has a sugar, a phosphate, and a base, one of four bases

Bases: A, T, C, and G
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T) Uracil in RNA (U)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)

The sequence is unique in each person
 
Double helix: the spiral structure formed by two strands of DNA nucleotides bound together ​

Hydrogen bonds: or base pairing hold the strands together
 
Polymer: made up of building block molecules. Biopolymers made of monomers
 
Genetic Code: the nucleotide triplets of DNA and RNA molecules that carry genetic information in living cells.
 
DNA Profile: a visual representation of a person's unique DNA sequence
 
Genome: one complete set of genetic instructions encoded in the DNA of an organism.

​​​Amino acids: The building blocks of proteins, there are 20 different amino acids
All amino acids have the same basic core structure but each also has a unique chemical side group. They bind together in linear chain, peptide chain.
 
​​Protein: A macromolecule made up of repeating sub-units known as amino acids, which determine the shape and function of a protein.  Proteins play critical roles in organisms.
 
Gene: a sequence of DNA that contains the information to make at least one protein
 
Gene expression: the process of using DNA instructions to make proteins

Phenotype: the physical attributes of an organism including observable and internal, non observable traits

Alleles: alternative versions of the same gene that have different nucleotide sequences 

Regulatory sequence: the part of the gene that determines the timing, amount, and location of a protein produced

Coding Sequence: part of a gene that specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein, identity, shape, and function of proteins.

​Messenger RNA (mRNA): 
RNA copy of an original DNA sequence made during 
transcription 

​Transcription: Transcription is the first step of DNA based gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase.

Translation: the second stage of gene expression.  Translation 'reads' mRNA sequences and assembles the corresponding amino acids to make proteins.

RNA Polymerase: the enzyme that accomplishes transcription.  RNA polymerase copies a strand of DNA into a complementary strand or RNA,

Ribosome: the cellular machinery that assembles proteins during the process of translation. checks for a matching codon and anticodon.

Codon: a sequence of three mRNA nucleotides that specifies a particular amino acid

Anti-codon: the complementary side on tRNA that leads to release of an aminoacid

Anticodon=tRNA, Codon=mRNA


Peptide: a compound consisting of two or more amino acids linked in a chain


How DNA Makes Protein



How Art Helps us See Biology


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9/7/2020

Food Chains, Dietary Energy and Cellular Respiration, Week 6

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Energy Transfer within a Trophic SYstem



This week is for review since we have been taking about energy transfer and trophic cycles.

Etymology of the word trophic:

late 19th century: from Greek trophikos, from trophē ‘nourishment’, from trephein ‘nourish’.

trophic means to nourish



Eating gives us energy



If we eat too much then we store the energy and gain weight.  In the United States, 36.5 percent of adults are obese. Another 32.5 percent of American adults are overweight
​
https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html

https://www.healthline.com/health/obesity-facts#2



calories in/ Calories out


Food Intake

1 glazed donut  200 calories

1 Starbucks Grande frappucino with Whipped Cream 380 calories

1 McDonald's Big Mac 540 calories

1 Burger King Whopper 670 calories

Exercise Calorie Burning/HR

Walking 3 mph 280 calories

Jogging 5 mph 500 calories


Biking 450 calories

Hiking 500 calories 

​So if you eat  a burger it take an hour of high energy exercise to burn the calories, otherwise you will store some of the energy

A full meal is over 1,000 calories.
A McDonald's meal with a shake has
1,680 calories and 74 grams of fat


Nutrition Info:

http://www.center4research.org/fast-food-facts-calories-and-fat/


Vocabulary


calorie:
the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius 
​


CALORIE
1,000 calories or  kilocalorie (Kcal); a capital C in Calorie means "kilocalorie", the Calorie is what we see in food labels
​


Carbohydrates give us calories



​We need some, in moderation



The Glycemic Index (GI) is a relative ranking of carbohydrate in foods according to how they affect blood glucose levels. Carbohydrates with a low GI value (55 or less) are more slowly digested, absorbed and metabolised and cause a lower and slower rise in blood glucose and, therefore usually, insulin levels.


​https://www.gisymbol.com/
​
Picture

Food that we eat gets broken down into subunits

Glycogen

a complex animal carbohydrate, made up of liked chains of glucose molecules, that store energy for short-term use

Triglyceride
a type of lipid found in fat cells that stores excess energy for long term use


Picture

Energy is extracted from food by mitochondria



​The process is called aerobic respiration

Aerobic Respiration
A series of reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen and converts energy stored in food into ATP

Picture
​
There are many parts to the process:


Glycolysis
a series of reactions that breaks down sugar into smaller units; glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm and is the first step of both aerobic respiration and fermentation.

Citric Acid Cycle
a set of reactions that takes place in mitochondria and helps extract energy (in the form of high-energy electrons) from food; the second step in aerobic respiration

Electron Transport Chain
a process that takes place in mitochondria and produces the bulk of ATP during aerobic respiration; the third step in aerobic respiration

Oxidative Phosphorylation
a process involving a flow of electrons through the electron transport chain


Picture

Mitochondria 
Where ATP is made, membrane bound organelles in the cell that float around the cell, they have their own DNA, they produce ATP using sugar and oxygen and our cells can use that ATP for cell work.


Each step in the process of building a protein takes energy, the energy is called ATP.

ATP synthase is an enzyme that creates the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP), forming it from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

​https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthase#


​ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate
The molecule that cells use to power energy-requiring functions, the cells "currency"


Picture

Fermentation

a series of chemical reactions that takes place in the absence of oxygen and converts some of the energy stored in food into ATP.  Fermentation produces far less ATP than aerobic respiration.
​

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    Author: Jazmin Gannon

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