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Alma d' Arte Biology

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1/29/2019

what is really going on?

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Global Climate Change is somewhat normal


Vostok ice core samples: p 465. Ice cores contain layers of ice harboring gas bubbles that reveal the composition of the ancient atmosphere.
​

Cryospheric Science:
 is the interdisciplinary study of permafrost, snow and ice, primarily on the surface of the Earth, but also on other planets and moons. Thecryosphere is an integral part of the climate system, and is investigated with techniques from geophysics, meteorology and hydrology.
​
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https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/cr/2016/12/14/ice-cores-for-dummies/

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​Natural processes, phenomena to consider

Glaciation

We happen to be in an interglacial period–between ice ages. The earth’s orbit is complex, and slight variations in its tilt can cause temperatures in the Northern hemisphere to decrease.

The patterns are complex–there are three ‘cycles’ according to Milutin Milankovitch, a Serbian scientist who figured these out as a prisoner of war during WWI.

Milutin Milanković was a mathematician, astronomer, climatologist, geophysicist, civil engineer and popularizer of science. Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science.

https://people.eou.edu/socprob/readings/week-4/gw1/

carbon cycle


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​https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/3-carbon-cycle

Baking soda/ carbon capture plant



Drinking Ocean Water



eco-metropolis and urbanization



earthships



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1/28/2019

sustainable energy

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renewable energy


Sustainability: the use of the Earth's resources  a way that will not permanently destroy r deplete them.  Living withing the limits of the Earth's biocapacity. 

Biocapacity: the amount of the Earth's biological productive area-- cropland, pasture, forest, fisheries--- what is available to provide resources to support life. 

Ecological Footprint: a measure of how much land and water area required to supply the resources a person or population consumes and to absorb the wastes it produces

Natural Resources: raw materials that are obtained from the Earth and are considered valuable


​There are many forms of renewable energy.
​
  • Solar
  • Wind Power
  • Hydroelectric energy
  • Biomass is the term for energy from plants
  • Hydrogen and fuel cells 
  • Geothermal power
  • Other forms of energy


current forms of energy


The primary sources of energy in the environment include fuels like 
​
  • coal
  • oil
  • natural gas
  • uranium
  • biomass

​All primary source fuels except biomass are non-renewable. 

Primary sources also include renewable sources:
​
  • sunlight
  • wind
  • moving water
  • geothermal energy

how electricity is made



where do we get coal?



oil



perpetual motion


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1/23/2019

global patterns and cycles

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greenhouse effect



ice melting


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greenhouse gas



​Sulfur hexafluoride
 (SF6) is an inorganic, colorless, odorless, non-flammable, extremely potent greenhouse gas, and an excellent electrical insulator

biodigester



carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous cycles



Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)


All consumer and most other aerosol products made or sold in the U.S. now use propellants—such as hydrocarbons and compressed gases like nitrous oxide—that do not deplete the ozone layer. Aerosol spray cans produced in some other countries might still utilize CFCs, but they cannot legally be sold in the U.S.

Were used in Refrigerators and Air Conditioners.

 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1995

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1/21/2019

bees

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what is going on with bees?



​Keystone Species: species on which other species depend, and whose removal has a dramatic impact on the community.

Community: a group of interacting populations of different species living together in the same area.
Pollination: the transfer of pollen from male to female plant structures so that fertilization can occur.

Pollen: small, thick walled plant structures that contain cells that will develop into sperm.

Nectar: sugary bait to attract pollinators​

Stamen: the male reproductive structure of a flower, made of a filament and an anther.

Pistil: the female reproductive structure of a flower, made up of a stigma, style, and ovary.

Seed: the embryo of a plant,together with a startling supply of food, all encased in a protective covering.


Bees are moved around the country for crop pollination



colony collapse disorder causes


  • stress and nutrition
  • temperature
  • Pesticides
  • Nosema ceranae parasite
  • isreali acute paralysis virus 
  • varroa mite

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Neonicotinoids are a class of neuro-active insecticides chemically similar to nicotine. In the 1980s Shell and in the 1990s Bayer started work on their development. 

Types of neonicotinoids
​
  • Acetamiprid
  • Clothianidin
  • Dinotefuran
  • Imidacloprid
  • Nitenpyram
  • Thiacloprid
  • Thiamethoxam

​
Effects on people:
​
https://ocfp.on.ca/tools/environmental-health-update/neonicotinoid-pesticides-and-human-health

city bee keeping




bee sting



bee venom biology



Bee-Friendly Garden Flowers


  • Sunflowers. Beekeeping is a great hobby with a delicious reward: honey! 
  • Goldenrod. Honey bees harvest these bright yellow plants for their nectar
  • Cosmos. Cosmos is another flower that can help increase honey production
  • Coriander. Coriander is harvested for its nectar and pollen
  • Mint
  • Lavender
  • Coneflowers
  • Beebalm

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1/16/2019

population ecology

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Wolves affect ecology



​Populations of animals interact: wolves affect deer population, deer affect plant population deer also affect tick population.  Predatory birds such as owls affect rodent population and rodent population affects tick population.

Less deer/ less rodents means less Lyme Disease

Climate change also affects population interactions, a later start of winter can lead ticks to kill a moose, even without disease
​

Population: A group of organisms of the same species living and interacting in a particular area 

Ecology: the study of the interactions between organisms, and between organisms and their non-living environment. 

Community: interacting populations of different species in a defined habitat

Ecosystem: the living organisms in an area and the nonliving components of the environment with which they interact.

Distribution pattern: the way organisms are distributed in a space. Depends on resources and interactions with other members of the population.
​
Growth Rate: the difference between the birth rate of a given population and the death rate of a given population, also known as the rate of natural increase.

Exponential Growth: the unrestricted growth of a population increasing at a constant growth rate.

Carrying Capacity: The maximum population size that a given environment or habitat can support given its food supply or other natural resources. 

Logistic Growth:
A pattern of growth that starts off fast and then levels off as the population reaches the carrying capacity of the environment. 
​

factors that affect population growth


Exponential Growth equation starts at 5:45
The Fibonacci sequence begins with the numbers 0 and 1. ...

​0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144
Fibonacci sequence first appears in the book Liber Abaci (1202) by Leonardo of Pisa, known as Fibonacci.

​Fibonacci considers the growth of an idealized (biologically unrealistic) rabbit population, assuming that:
​
  1. a single newly born pair of rabbits (one male, one female) are put in a field;
  2. rabbits are able to mate at the age of one month so that at the end of its second month a female can produce another pair of rabbits;
  3. rabbits never die and a mating pair always produces one new pair (one male, one female) every month from the second month on.
​
http://www.oxfordmathcenter.com/drupal7/node/487

algorithm


A process or set of rules to be followed in calculations or other problem-solving operations, especially by a computer.

Population Growth Algorithm is a forecasting Algorithm that may be used for predicting the Population Growth
​

Population Density: the number of organisms per given area. 

Density-Dependent Factor:  factor whose influence on population size and growth depends on the number and crowding of individuals in the population
(for example, predation) 
  • Lead to carrying capacity

Density Independent Factor: chance, a factor that can influence a population size and growth regardless of the numbers and crowding within a population (weather)

Biotic Factors: refers to the living components of an environment
  • Food is an example

Abiotic Factors: refers to nonliving components of an environment
  • such as temperature and precipitation 
​

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1/15/2019

human evolution

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human migration and evolution


Chapter 20

H
aplogroup is a genetic population group of people who share a common ancestor on the patriline or the matriline. 

A 
maternal haplogroup is a family of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) that traces back to a single common ancestor. Your maternal haplogroup assignment is based on your mitochondrial DNA, which you inherited from your mother.

In human genetics, the Mitochondrial Eve is the matrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all currently living humans, the most recent woman from whom all living humans descend in an unbroken line purely through their mothers, and through the mothers of those mothers, back until all lines converge on one woman.​

Estimates on the age of this split ranged at around 150,000 years ago


that theory on human evolution



UV and skin tone


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Could Increasing the Melanin In Your Skin Protect You From Cancer?



movement of people TO THE AMERICAS from all over the world 


Trans Atlantic Currents move ships from West Africa to the area where we find the Olmec Civilization and other Ancient Civilizations  
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1/13/2019

types of life

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prokaryote


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  • Unicellular organism who lacks membrane bound organelles
  • DNA not in a nucleus, it just floats around in cytoplasm
  • much smaller than eukaryotic cells
  • a prokaryote is about the size of a mitochondria in a eukaryote 
  • single DNA loops

Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes, the two domains of prokaryotic life.

There are many types of bacteria: 

  • Cyanobacteria are a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis and are the only photosynthetic prokaryotes able to produce oxygen.
  • Round bacteria are referred to as cocci (singular: coccus),
    • an example is Streptococcus
  • ​Cylindrical, capsule-shaped bacteria are named bacilli (singular: bacillus),
    • bacteria that make yogurt: Lactobacillus bulgaricus 
  • Spiral bacteria are called spirilla (singular: spirillum)
    • ​Lyme disease and syphillis are caused by this type of bacteria


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​Bacteria equipment:

  • Flagella: whip-like appendages used to move around, like arms
  • Pili: short, hair-like appendages extending from the surface, used to stick to surfaces
  • Capsule: sticky coating, used to stick to surfaces


Some but not all bacteria are pathogens: a disease causing agent

Some bacteria are purely beneficial and help with symbiosis: the relationship in which two different organisms live together, often interdependently. 

Nitrogen Fixation:

  • Converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use to grow
    • ​Two types of bacteria do this job: non-symbiotic bacteria in the soil and symbiotic bacteria that live in the roots of plants.
    • Bacteria in the genera Clostridium and Azotobacter are non-symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
    • The genus Rhizobium are symbiotic bacteria.
​​
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Archaea


The other domain of prokaryotic life, tend to live in extreme environments

Grouped according to where they live (pg 371):
​
  • Halophiles: live in very salty places
  • Hyperthermophile: extremely high temperatures (80 to 100 Celcius), (176 to 212 Fahrenheitt) ​
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Archaea in hydrothermal vents:

The sea floor is an anaerobic environment, no oxygen


  • Serpentinization: H2, hydrogen is formed when mantle rock is exposed to seawater, the rock columns that are formed as gases emerge from the earth's crust in hydrothermal chimneys
​
  • Methanogens: archaea that produce methane as a by-product of converting energy from carbon dioxde, using hydrogen H2 as an energy source
  
  • Anaerobic Archaea: eat methane
​

endosymbiosis


Evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms.

That prokaryotes ate a mitochondria and kept it around, some ate a chloroplast and became plants (pg. 391)


Endosymbiotic theory deals with the origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts, two eukaryotic organelles that have bacteria characteristics. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are believed to have developed from symbiotic bacteria, specifically alpha-proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively.
​

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​Mitochondria: 
an organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur. It has a double membrane, the inner layer being folded inward to form layers (cristae).

Makes 
ATP

Mitochondria origin: The endosymbiotic hypothesis for the origin of mitochondria (and chloroplasts) suggests that mitochondria are descended from specialized bacteria (probably purple nonsulfur bacteria) that somehow survived endocytosis by another species of prokaryote or some other cell type, and became incorporated into the cytoplasm.

SO Mitochondria and Chloroplasts were bacteria billions of years ago.

They have their own DNA 


Mitochondria and chloroplasts have striking similarities to bacteria cells.
  • They have their own DNA, which is separate from the DNA found in the nucleus of the cell.
  • And both organelles use their DNA to produce many proteins and enzymes required for their function.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA): is the DNA located in mitochondria, cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Mitochondrial DNA is double-stranded like cellular DNA in prokaryotes. However it is circular and similar in size and structure to the single DNA loops found in prokaryotes like bacteria.
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts can no longer live outside the eukaryotic cell, and cells cannot live without mitochondria or chloroplasts because that is how they get ATP.

Over millions of years of evolution, mitochondria and chloroplasts have become more specialized and today they cannot live outside the cell.

They are now interdependent/codependent  


Cells would only be able to obtain energy from anaerobic respiration (in the absence of oxygen)

So mitochondria helped get archaea out of the hydrothermal vents

Evidence obtained so far indicates that the Bacteria and Archaea diverged from a common ancestor about 
3.7 billion years ago, and somewhat later the Archaea diverged from the lineage that would become the Eukarya.
​
  • Evidence was found by comparing nucleic acid sequences to discover the evolutionary relationships among microorganisms.
  • The more alike the rRNA sequences were between two microbes, the more recently they shared an ancestor.
  • Read more: http://www.biologyreference.com/Ar-Bi/Archaea.html#ixzz5cZWeYzkr

Around 2 billion years ago, archaea and bacteria found a way to share genes or merge some of their material and a third kingdom of life, eukaryotes, was born.

Mitochondria know both aerobic and anaerobic respiration: When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle.
  • However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur.

eukaryote 


  • An organism consisting of a cell or cells in which the genetic material is DNA in the form of chromosomes contained within a distinct nucleus.
  • Eukaryotes include all living organisms other than the eubacteria and archaebacteria.
​
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​so plants, protists, fungi, and animals

plants


A multi cellular eukaryote that has cell walls, carries out photosynthesis, and is adapted to living on land 

Types of plants:​
  • Bryophyte: a non-vascular plant that does not produce seeds
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Vascular plant: plant with tissues that transport water and nutrients through the plants body. Xylem and Phloem.
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  • Fern: the first vascular plants, do not produce seeds
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​​
  • Gymnosperm: seed-bearing plant with "naked" seeds, usually in cones
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​​
  • Angiosperm: seed-bearing plant with seeds in a case, a fruit
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protists


  • A protist is any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant or fungus. 
  • Single cell, but with organelles
  • Algae is an example, a photosynthetic protist
  • Also Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium,  
  • Are a very diverse group of organisms. They are basically all the organisms that don't fit into the other groups. 
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monera


  • ("single", "solitary") is a kingdom that contains unicellular organisms with a prokaryotic cell organization (having no nuclear membrane), such as bacteria.

  • A major difference between monerans and protists lies in the nucleus, which is the "command center" of a cell. Monerans do not have a true nucleus, while protistshave nuclei bound in their own nuclear membranes. 

fungi


  • Includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. 
    • ​Yeast: single-cell fungi, in bread, in fermented beverages
    • Molds: form mycellia mats and hyphae, create a network in the soil.  help plants receive nutrients or retain moisture/ sometimes hurt the plant/ balance is key.
    • Mushrooms: the above ground fruiting body that releases spores, decay leaf litter and other plant matter, provide food for animals
  • Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotic organism that obtains nutrients by secreting digestive enzymes into organic matter and absorbing the digestive product
  • Decomposer: uses the organic substances in dead organisms to as sources of nutrient and energy. 
  • Hypha/ Hyphae is plural: a long, threadlike structure through which fungi absorb nutrients 
  • Mycellium: a spreading mass of interwoven hyphae, underground when you see a mushroom
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animals


The six main groups are: invertebrates, mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and fish.

​Invertebrate: no spine​
​
  • SPONGES. 
  • CNIDARIANS. 
  • WORMS.
  • ECHINODERMS.
  • ARTHROPODS. 
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​Arthropod: an invertebrate having a segmented body, a hard exoskeleton, and jointed appendages
​
  • Insects
  • Arachnids
  • Crustaceans
  • Myriapods= Chilopoda, Diplopoda

Exoskeleton: a hard external skeleton, usually made of chitin protein

Endoskeleton: a solid internal skeleton, found in many animals

Insect: a six-legged arthropod with three body segments, head, thorax and abdomen
​
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Mammal: an animal with mammary glands and fur
​
Birds: a warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrate distinguished by the possession of feathers, wings, and a beak and (typically) by being able to fly.
​

Amphibians: a cold-blooded vertebrate animal of a class that comprises the frogs, toads, newts, and salamanders. They are distinguished by having an aquatic gill-breathing larval stage followed (typically) by a terrestrial lung-breathing adult stage.
​
Reptiles: a cold-blooded vertebrate animal of a class that includes snakes, lizards, crocodiles, turtles, and tortoises. They are distinguished by having a dry scaly skin and typically laying soft-shelled eggs on land.
​

Fish: a limbless cold-blooded vertebrate animal with gills and fins and living wholly in water.

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1/12/2019

engineer teens

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The DIY Girls

How 12 teens invented a solar-powered tent for the homeless

​https://mashable.com/2017/06/15/diy-girls-solar-powered-tent-homeless/?fbclid=IwAR3OqF8_EI5FukgPIXcVsCYj_wWUg_--57DrKyTK3dMsZbuVdP58lq2wgC0#

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1/9/2019

1/10: Life in all the places

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Our planet is packed with diversity


Please take a look at page 350 in our book
  • Total classified Species: Approximately 1.8 million
  • Estimated Species on Earth: 5 to 30 million
  • We have not classified most of the species on this planet
  • Millions of bacteria have not even been seen yet
  • We have barely explored the ocean
  • Mushroom Spores can survive the vacuum of space, so can Tardigrades 

most of the time evolution happens by animals splitting off from groups of other animals


Polar bears are most related to brown bears in Siberia
Convergent Evolution: when species that are not related develop similar adaptations, an examples is fish in cold places, fish avoid freezing by having proteins called glycoproteins, they work as an antifreeze. 

This happens through independent episodes of natural selection, the fish with the proteins were able to survive the freeing water and were able to reproduce, passing on their genes that code for glycoproteins.

So both Arctic and Antarctic fish have this natural antifreeze even though they are not closely related.

phylogeny and taxonomy


Phylogeny: is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms, how long ago they had a common ancestor 

A Phylogenetic Tree: shows the relationships of common ancestry 

Taxonomy: is how we classify the organism on a chart according to:
  • Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species
  • Before that there is Domain, there are three domains (pg. 354): 
    • Bacteria: no nucleous, prokaryote
    • Archaea: no nucleus, prokaryote, tend to live in extreme places
    • Eukarya: nucleus, animals, plants fungi
  • Protists are spread out, according to DNA, they don't follow rules like that: amoeba are protists, made up of a single cell

on page 352 we can see that a bird is more closely related to a crocodile than a lizard is

there was a common ancestor that split into crocodile, dinosaur and bird a long time after lizards started to show up in the fossil record.  So there was a lizard that split off from the other lizards and then further split off into different types of animals.

In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation: is how species split off to fit a different niche

how we explore life in extreme environments with technology


Extremophiles occur in all three domains of life: bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.

​An extremophile is an organism that thrives in physically or geochemically extreme conditions that are detrimental to most life on Earth. In contrast, organisms that live in more moderate environments may be termed mesophiles or neutrophiles.
  • Thermophiles 
    • Thermophiles are a type of extremophile that can survive at very high temperatures. For example, the thermophile known as thermus aquaticus, found in the hot springs in Yellowstone National Park, not only survives but thrives at temperatures as high as 160 degrees Fahrenheit (or 70 degrees Celsius).

  • Psychrophiles
    •  Psychrophiles have adapted to survive temperatures at the other extreme end. Water temperatures deep in the ocean can reach as low as -12 degrees Celsius without freezing, since salt content affects the freezing point of water.
    • Some psychrophiles survive these conditions by producing their own antifreeze proteins which lowers the freezing point of water around them

Not an exactly extremophile, but close:

  • Tardigrades (or Water Bears)
    • Tardigrades are known as polyextremophile because they are capable of adapting to many varied types of extreme conditions. 
    • Tardigrades are small, water-dwelling invertebrates that can survive being thrown in boiling water or being frozen in ice. Although aquatic in nature, they can be dried out completely and are able to survive by replacing the water that should be in their bodies with sugar. Despite being only about a millimeter in size, they have even survived being launched into space and thus exposure to a vacuum, cosmic rays, and dangerously high levels of ultraviolet radiation.

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https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/science/what-are-extremophiles?

They are not single cell prokaryotes like most extremophiles, but they are microscopic

Some prokaryotic diversity is found in the depths of the ocean

Chapter 18, pg 360 is about Lost City, exploring deep sea hydro thermal vents where some extremophiles live.

​hydrothermal vents


Hydrothermal vents are commonly found near volcanically active places, areas where tectonic plates are moving apart at spreading centers, ocean basins, and hotspots.   

Support unique ecosystems and their communities of organisms in the deep ocean.


Seawater interaction with volcanic rocks at near 400°C ​

​40,000 different types of microbes have been identified in hydrothermal vents
​
Clusters of tube worms, limpets, mussels, and anemones were seen to inhabit cracks in the lava bed where mineral-rich, geothermally heated water 'vents' out.

WHAT DOES AN ENGINEER NEED TO CONSIDER TO DESIGN EQUIPMENT FOR DEEP SEA EXPLORATION?


On May 31, 2009, one hybrid vehicle—the Nereus—reached the deepest part of the ocean, the Mariana Trench. It dived 10,902 meters (6.8 miles) below the surface

wait, sea mining? 


The deep seas are a treasure trove of valuable metals such as gold, silver, platinum, copper, cobalt, manganese, and zinc. And robots could be the key to accessing these treasures.

Most of the mining possibilities are centered in the Pacific Ocean, including the Central and Eastern Manus Basin near Papua New Guinea. While the waters there are deep – around 3,400 feet – a robot could navigate there.

Canadian company Nautilus Minerals is currently developing a copper and gold mining program on the seafloor in Papua New Guinea that is planned to be operational in 2019. The robots it plans to deploy include two kinds of cutting robots and a collecting robot to gather the materials.
​

http://www.nautilusminerals.com/IRM/content/default.aspx 
​
They say that they care about the ecosystem: ​http://cares.nautilusminerals.com/IRM/content/default.aspx 

robotics to explore the ocean


Robotics and deep sea exploration:
​
https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/robotics/4-ways-robots-lead-ocean-exploration

what does cobalt mining currently look like?



​Cobalt is a brittle, hard, silver-grey transition metal with magnetic properties similar to those of 
iron (it is ferromagnetic).
  • In batteries, blue paint  and medical procedures.
  • There is a very important radioactive isotope of cobalt that is used in medicine. It's not too radioactive and doesn't hurt the patient, but it can be used as a tracer element to find things like cancer.
Cobalt is used to build lithium-ion batteries found in mobile technology.

Cobalt is used to build rechargeable lithium-ion batteries

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alternatives to cobalt:


Battery researchers are moving to materials like manganese and iron. ​
​
https://www.wired.com/story/alternatives-to-cobalt-the-blood-diamond-of-batteries/

11 Lithium-Ion Battery Makers That Don’t Need Cobalt

Elon Musk (Tesla) wants cobalt out of his batteries — here’s why that’s a challenge

there is quite a bit going on in the ocean


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1/6/2019

Welcome Back from Winter Break!

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Let's Review that final


 ​
​1. What is a biomolecule?  They are also called the four major classes of organic
    compounds. 
​​​
    
    
A biomolecule or biological molecule is one of Life's building blocks. 
   
​    Examples are: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids

    
Carbohydrates: short term energy storage: sugars, starch, and cellulose. 
                                 CHO (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen)


    Lipids: fats, make cell membrane lipid bilayer, long term energy storage. 
                 CHO (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen)

    Proteins: chains of 
amino acids, Provide: structure, movement, muscle, hair, collagen,
                     enzymes, antibodies.  
                     CHONS (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur)

  
    Nucleic Acids: store and transmit genetic information: DNA, RNA
                              DNA is a double helix
                              RNA is a singe strand
                              CHNOP (Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous)

    All nucleic acids are made up of the same building blocks (monomers),

    the monomers are called "nucleotides." 


    Nucleotide: a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group. 
    Nucleotides form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA.


    The five monomers or nucleotides are: uracil, cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine

    Nucleotides in DNA contain four different nitrogenous bases: 
    Thymine, Cytosine, Adenine, or Guanine.

   RNA contains uracil, instead of thymine

   6 elements needed for life: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Sulfur
​


​2. Why do they (biomolecules) matter?

    Biomolecules are essential for life, they are  
essential to some biological process such
    as cell division, nutrient transport, or development.

    Examples:

    
Carbohydrates: 
                Sugars in fruit, starch in roots (potatoes, yams), and cellulose in plants (celery) 
    Lipids:   
                Seed oils, plant oils, waxes ( the waxy cuticle that keeps plants from dehydrating)
    Proteins:
                Chitin: the protein that makes insect exoskeleton, crustacean shells, and                                              mushrooms
                Keratin: the protein in skin hair, nails
                Enzymes: 
Amylase: found in saliva, breaks down starch molecules into
                                                   smaller 
glucose and maltose molecules
    Nucleic Acids:  DNA, RNA, instructions of how to make biomolecules that the
                                living being needs to do their work
​

 
​​3. What is the difference between an atom and a molecule?
  • An atom a fundamental piece of matter, the items on the periodic table of elements
  • An atom itself is made up of three tiny kinds of particles called subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. 

    The protons and the neutrons make up the center of the atom called the nucleus
​    and the electrons fly around above the nucleus in a small cloud.

    A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest
    fundamental unit of a chemical compound

   
    Extra information:
​
    Types of bonds: 
​                                 A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that
                                 involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.


                                 Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between 
                                 atoms and is a type of chemical 
bond that
                                 generates two oppositely charged 
ions. Usually found in Metals.

                                 A 
polar bond is a covalent bond between two atoms where the 
                                 electrons forming the 
bond are unequally distributed.
                                 This causes the molecule to have a slight electrical dipole moment
                                 where one end is slightly positive and the other is slightly negative.

​
Carbon is ideal for sharing electrons - forming covalent bonds


​4. How does an enzyme help with digestion and metabolism?

     Enzymes speed up chemical reactions and speed up metabolism. 
     The effectiveness of an enzyme can be affected by temperature, pH, concentration
     of enzyme, and concentration of substrate 

    Types of Enzymes:
  • Proteases and peptidases split proteins into small peptides and amino acids.
  • Lipases split fat into three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule.
  • Amylases split carbohydrates such as starch and sugars into simple sugars such as glucose.
  • Nucleases split nucleic acids into nucleotides.

If a word ends with -ase, it is probably an enzyme
​


​5. Does an enzyme need to fit into a specific space or “doorway” to work?

     Our review calls it the lock and key model.
​
    Enzymes are specific. Only molecules with the correct shape can fit into the
    
enzyme. Just like only one key can open a lock, only one type of enzyme can speed
    up a specific reaction. This is called the 
lock and key model.

Picture


​6. How do we maintain homeostasis?

    Homeostasis is 
the tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between     
    interdependent elements, especially as maintained by physiological processes.

    F
ive body functions that monitor homeostasis are: temperature, glucose, blood
    pressure, toxins, and pH.


    Examples from class:
  • Storing lipids for blubber
  • cold blooded animals going out to get sun
  • Penguins reducing the blood flow to their feet to keep their core warm
  • Seals reducing oxygen flow to outer limbs and focusing on oxygenating brain and heart so they can dive longer
  • Plants absorbing sunlight for photosynthesis and adapting their color to maximize photosynthesis 
  • Plants closing stomata during the day to prevent loss of moisture 

    Examples in humans:
  • Body pH: The kidneys excrete excess acids and bases to regulate pH in blood.
  • The lungs control pH levels by excreting carbon dioxide. When a person exhales, the diaphragm pushes carbon dioxide out of the body. The pH of the blood changes when the depth and speed of breathing change, making it possible to adjust blood pH in less than a minute.
  • Body Temperature: ​Normal body temperature is 37 degrees C or 98.6 degrees F. 
  • The body controls temperature by producing heat or releasing excess heat, through sweat or focusing blood flow in mid body.
  • Calcium Levels: The bones and teeth contain approximately 99 percent of the calcium in the body, while the other 1 percent circulates in the blood.
  • ​ If blood calcium levels decrease too much, the parathyroid glands activate their calcium-sensing receptors and release parathyroid hormone (PTH).
  • PTH signals the bones to release calcium to increase the amount of calcium in the bloodstream. If calcium levels increase too much, the thyroid gland releases calcitonin and fixes more calcium in the bones. 
  • Fluid Retention: Hormones help to regulate this balance by causing the excretion or retention of fluid. If the body does not have enough fluid, antidiuretic hormone signals the kidneys to retain fluid and decrease urine output. If the body has too much fluid, it suppresses aldosterone and signals the excretion of more urine.
​


​7. What is osmosis?

     
     a. How water moves into a cell

     b. A protein
     c. 
A type of DNA strand
     d. The body’s ability to produce sweat
​
Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a more concentrated solution, up a concentration gradient.

Osmotic Balance: Osmoregulation controls this balance of water/salt concentrations.

Salts go from high concentration to low concentration, salt wants to get in the water 

Water moves from low solute to high solute, water wants to dilute the salt



​8. What does the figure below represent?
Picture
      a. DNA
      b. RNA
      c. Protein
      d. Amino Acid
​
Deoxyribonucleic acid: a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms

Double Helix: two chains that coil around each other form a double helix carrying the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.



​9. ​
Multicellular organisms have a hierarchical structural organization, in which any one          system is made up of numerous parts and is itself a component of the next level.

    In other words, we have groups of cells that make up organs, that make up bodies,
    all by working together and sharing energy.


    How do the structures of organisms enable life’s functions?
​    (choose the best answer, for a biology exam)


      a. Humans evolved thumbs only because burritos exist
      b. Cells in a body do different types of work by having shapes that help them do the
          work (hair cell vs skin cell)
      c. Veins are shaped like tunnels to transport nutrients
      d. B and C

​


​10. The phospholipid bilayer is a thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid       
      molecules, a hydrophilic (likes water) phosphate head, and a hydrophobic (dislikes 
      water) tail consisting of two fatty acid chains, this is what the cell membrane is made 
      of.
Picture
Picture
​   It naturally allows non-polar particles (fat-soluble molecules) like oxygen (O2) and  
   carbon dioxide (CO2) to move down the concentration gradient: from high 
   concentration to low concentration.  Some proteins allow molecules in without needing 
   to use energy because they are following the concentration gradient flow (high to low).

   How does the cell membrane move particles up the concentration gradient/ from low 
​   concentration to high concentration?

      a. enzymes
      b. active transport proteins in the cell membrane use energy,
          (ATP, cell energy) to move the molecule 

      c. Mystical doorways with magical powers
      d. neurons
​
Nutrient Transport: The blood circulatory system (cardiovascular system) delivers nutrients and oxygen to all cells in the body. It consists of the heart and the blood vessels running through the entire body.
The arteries carry 
blood away from the heart; the veins carry it back to the heart.

Fats and fat soluble 
nutrients can move directly across the lipid membrane.

Water, gasses, and other very small molecules can diffuse through the pores of the 
cell.

Active Transport: Moving against a gradient. The movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy (ATP).

ATP: 
A
denosine Triphosphate, money in the cell world, molecular unit of currency,
          organic chemical that provides energy to drive many processes in living cells


Diffusion: is a spontaneous movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

Facilitated diffusion: Stuff getting through the cell membrane through a specialized door.  The passive movement of molecules along their concentration gradient, guided by the presence of another molecule – usually an integral membrane protein forming a pore or channel. May or may not 
require energy from ATP.


​11. Cells multiply through mitosis and meiosis, what is the difference?
​
    Mitosis: 
The process in cell division by which the nucleus divides, typically consisting
    of four stages, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase,
Some textbooks list five,      breaking prophase into an early phase (called prophase) and a late phase (called   
    prometaphase). N
ormally resulting in two new nuclei, each of which contains
    a complete copy of the parental chromosomes.

    Mitosis makes two cells


    Stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. 
      
                 OK, so PPMAT...

    
In early prophase, the cell starts to break down some structures and build others up,     
    setting the stage for division of the chromosomes.

    In late prophase (sometimes also called 
prometaphase), the mitotic spindle begins to
    capture and organize the chromosomes.

    In 
metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up at the 
​    middle of the cell, ready to divide.

    In 
anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are pulled towards 
    opposite ends of the cell.

    In 
telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish its normal 
    structures as cytokinesis (division of the cell contents) takes place.


    Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells
​
Picture
Picture
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-molecular-biology/mitosis/a/phases-of-mitosis 

meiosis


A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.
  • Two-step division process, Homologue pairs separate during a first round of cell division, called meiosis I.​
  • ​Sister chromatids separate during a second round, called meiosis II.
  • ​Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through interphase.
  •  Prophase I: As in mitosis, the chromosomes begin to condense, but in meiosis I, they also pair up. Each chromosome carefully aligns with its homologue partner so that the two match up at corresponding positions along their full length.
  • ​Homologous chromosomes are chromosome pairs (one from each parent) that are similar in length, gene position, and centromere location.
  • Homologous chromosomes trade parts, is called crossing over.
Picture

crossing over

Picture
  • Metaphase I: homologue pairs—not individual chromosomes—line up at the metaphase plate for separation.
  • Anaphase I: the homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends of the cell.
  • Telophase I: the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell.

Meiosis II:

Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying their DNA. Meiosis II is a shorter and simpler process than meiosis I, and you may find it helpful to think of meiosis II as “mitosis for haploid cells."

Haploid: half the chromosomes

Picture
Prophase II: chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down

Metaphase II: the chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase plate. 

A
naphase II: the sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase II: nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes decondense

Cytokinesis: splits the chromosome sets into new cells, forming the final products of meiosis: four haploid cells 
​

Picture
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-molecular-biology/meiosis/a/phases-of-meiosis 


​12. What is a haploid cell?  How is it different from a diploid cell?

​    
Haploid is the term used when a cell has half the usual number of chromosomes.
    A normal eukaryotic organism is composed of diploid 
cells, one set of chromosomes
    from each parent. However, after meiosis, the number of chromosomes in gametes
    is halved.

    D
iploid cell is a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes. This is double the haploid
    chromosome number. Each pair of chromosomes in a 
diploid cell is considered to be     
​    one homologous chromosome set

​


​13. How do organisms grow and develop?
   
​     Cell division and nutrient transport, metabolism
​


​14. What is a stem cell?

     
​      a. A cell that only exists in plants

      b. A cell that can turn into many different types of cells
      c. A blood cell
      d. All of the above
​
​Cells become specialized through differentiation


​15. How can stem cell therapy change medicine in the near future?
​
    Organ transplant, regeneration of organs using stem cells

    Embryonic stem cell: Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent stem cells derived from the
    inner cell mass of a blastocyst, an early-stage pre-implantation embryo. Human
    embryos reach the blastocyst stage 4–5 days post fertilization, at which time they     
    consist of 50–150 cells.
   

    First we are a blastocyst:
​
    Fertilization
 usually takes place in a fallopian tube that links an ovary to the uterus.
    If the fertilized egg successfully travels down the fallopian tube and implants in the
    uterus, an embryo starts growing.
​
    The embryo usually reaches the uterine cavity about 5 or 6 days after fertilization.

    
Most embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos that develop from eggs that
    have been fertilized in vitro—in an in vitro fertilization clinic—and then donated for
    research purposes with informed consent of the donors.


    It is not generally considered ethical to use embryonic stem cells, you be the judge,
    we also have somatic stem cells. 

    Pluripotent: capable of giving rise to several different cell types, can give rise to
                           all of the cell types that make up the body


    Totipotent: cells can form all the cell types in a body, even placental cells.  
                         Embryonic cells within the first couple of cell divisions after fertilization
                         are the only cells that are totipotent. 
    
    Multipotent: cells can develop into more than one cell type, but are more limited
                            than pluripotent cells; adult stem cells are considered multipotent.


                            https://stemcell.ny.gov/faqs/what-difference-between

    Somatic Stem Cell: Adult stem cells have been identified in many organs and tissues,
                                       including brain, 
bone marrow, peripheral blood, blood vessels,
                                       skeletal muscle, skin, teeth, heart, gut, liver, ovarian epithelium,
                                       and testis. They are thought to reside in a specific area of
                                       each 
tissue (called a "stem cell niche").
                                     
                                       M
ultiply by cell division to replenish dying cells and
​                                       regenerate damaged tissues. 


​16. In botany, a stoma, also called a stomata, is a pore, found in the epidermis of leaves,
     stems, and other organs, that facilitates gas exchange.
     
​     They will help the plant stay cool and hydrated in the heat of summer by holding
      water in, that are the stoma doing for plants?


      a. Maintain homeostasis in the plant
      b. Absorb water
      c. Attract pollinators
      d. Removing waste
​


​17. What do DNA and RNA stand for?


      a. Donuts with apples and river news updates
      b. Do not adapt and really neat antiques 
      c. deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid
      d. None of the above
​


​18. DNA is made of nucleotides.  What are the four different nucleotides?


      a. Thymine, Cytosine, Adenine, or Guanine
      b. Tomato, cacao, apple, guava
      c. Tyrosine, Cytonine, Alabasternine, Goosefeathernine
      d. None of these
​


​19. What is an example of an input and output of matter and the
​      transfer and transformation of energy?

      
​      a. Plants absorbing light to make sugars through photosynthesis

      b. Animals eating food and digesting it
      c. Plankton photosynthesizing and being the base of the entire food chain of the planet
      d. All of the above
​


​20. The initial source of energy for all organisms is the _____Sun___________.

​

​
​21. What do mushrooms do?

  
      a. Decompose     
​      b. Absorb petroleum
      c. Replacewood, disposable items, packing materials
      d. All of the above
​

​
​22. What is this?
Picture
      a. A trophic level pyramid and It shows the position of an organism in a food chain,
          this is how matter and energy move through an ecosystem
     
      b. A food pyramid

      c. A chart of what we need to eat more of
      d. None of the above
​


​23. Which organisms produce their own food?


      a. Autotrophs
      b. Heterotrophs
      c. Primary consumers
      d. Secondary consumers

           Auto -Self, troph-Make, one being makes without needing another (makes cells)
           Hetero- Two/other, troph- Make, need two beings to make/ grow/ live
           Primary consumer: Insect eating grass, or a fish eating algae, a vegetarian being
           Secondary Consumer: whoever eats the insect or the fish

Plants are autotrophs, they make new cells using the Sun and CO2 from the air, except those carnivorous plants, they do both... those mixotrophs
​


​24. What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?


      a. People should be exercising 3 times a week for 30 to 60 minutes
      b. Aerobic means it needs oxygen while anaerobic does not need oxygen
      c. Some molecules like to lift weight
      d. One is in animals while the other is in plants

Aerobic respiration is the process of producing cellular energy involving oxygen. 
  • takes place in the mitochondria and requires oxygen and glucose, and produces carbon dioxide, water, and energy. 
  • Cells break down food in the mitochondria in a long, multistep process that produces roughly 36 ATP.
  • The first step in is glycolysis, the second is the citric acid cycle and the third is the electron transport system.
  • The chemical equation is
    • C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O (glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water)
    • Anaerobic processes can happen in the mitochondria or in the cytoplasm of the cell.
 
Anaerobic respiration:
 no oxygen used, examples: alcohol fermentation, lactic acid fermentation and in decomposition of organic matter. 
  • The equation is: glucose + enzymes = carbon dioxide + ethanol / lactic acid
  • ​Produces energy, ATP, less energy
  • Instead of oxygen, molecules such as sulfate (SO42-), nitrate(NO3–), or sulfur (S) are used as electron acceptors.
  • An electron acceptor is a chemical entity that accepts electrons transferred to it from another compound and oxidizes it/ breaks it down.
​


​25. What happens to ecosystems when the environment changes?


      a. All living beings try their best to adapt and survive, they might move to
        another area if possible, they try a different food source and adopt orphaned babies

      b. Nothing, it all just evolves and changes really fast, it is the miracle of life
      c. Extinction 
      d. All of the above
​


​26. When we breathe out we release carbon dioxide (CO2), plants use CO2 to make
      sugars through photosynthesis and release Oxygen (O2) in the process,
      we need oxygen to live.  This is part of the carbon cycle.


      Which human activity would have the greatest impact of the carbon cycle?

      a. Deforestation 
      b. Gold mining
      c. Petroleum extraction
      d. Fracking ​​
​
Also hurting algae and plankton


​27. True or False: Scientists believe that phytoplankton contribute between

​      50 to 85 percent of the oxygen in Earth's atmosphere.
​


​28. Which of the following could increase conservation of water in New Mexico?


      a. Improve systems of agricultural irrigation
      b. Reduce the amount of land covered by grass and lawns
      c. Reduce residential water use
      d. All of the above
​


​29. How do we connect art and biology? What are some ways in which we do this
​      and what are some ways in which we could do this?

      Biology is full of art inspiration, there are free art supplies in this world as long as we   
      source them in a sustainable way.  Biology can teach us about resource sharing and
      egalitarian communities through symbiotic relationships.



​30. We have technology that can save the planet, do you think we will start using it more?
      What are some changes that you see in the near future?

       Biofuels, solar energy wood may be replaced by mycellium (mushroom) molded
       materials, stem cell research, 3d printing with bioplastics, the use of hemp to make
       textile, fuel, paper, food, cooking oil, bioplastics, biomimicry for architecture
       and product design... 



​
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